hat　the　distinguished　people　who　visited　these　women；　　and　from　time　to　time　lived　with　them；　demanded　from　them　a　　considerable　degree　of　intelligence　and　instruction；　and　that　the　　famous　courtesans　were　treated　with　no　slight　respect　and　　consideration。　Even　when　relations　with　them　were　broken　off；　their　　good　opinion　was　still　desired；　which　shows　that　departed　passion　had　　left　permanent　traces　behind。　But　on　the　whole　this　intellectual　　intercourse　is　not　worth　mentioning　by　the　side　of　that　sanctioned　by　　the　recognized　forms　of　social　life；　and　the　traces　which　it　has　left　　in　poetry　and　literature　are　for　the　most　part　of　a　scandalous　nature。　　We　may　well　be　astonished　that　among　the　6；800　persons　of　this　class；　　who　were　to　be　found　in　Rome　in　1490that　is；　before　the　appearance　of　　syphilisscarcely　a　single　woman　seems　to　have　been　remarkable　for　any　　higher　gifts。　Those　whom　we　have　mentioned　all　belong　to　the　period　　which　immediately　followed。　The　mode　of　life；　the　morals　and　the　　philosophy　of　the　public　women；　who　with　all　their　sensuality　and　greed　　were　not　always　incapable　of　deeper　passions；　as　well　as　the　hypocrisy　　and　devilish　malice　shown　by　some　in　their　later　years；　are　best　set　　forth　by　Giraldi；　in　the　novels　which　form　the　introduction　to　the　　'Hecatommithi。'　Pietro　Aretino；　in　his　'Ragionamenti；'　gives　us　rather　　a　picture　of　his　own　depraved　character　than　of　this　unhappy　class　of　　women　as　they　really　were。
  The　mistresses　of　the　princes；　as　has　been　pointed　out；　were　sung　by　　poets　and　painted　by　artists；　and　thus　have　become　personally　familiar　　to　their　contemporaries　and　to　posterity。　But　we　hardly　know　more　than　　the　name　of　Alice　Perries；　and　of　Clara　Dettin；　the　mistress　of　　Frederick　the　Victorious；　and　of　Agnes　Sorel　we　have　only　a　half…　legendary　story。　With　the　concubines　of　the　Renaissance　monarchs　Francis　I　and　Henry　IIthe　case　is　different。
  Domestic　Life
  After　treating　of　the　intercourse　of　society；　let　us　glance　for　a　　moment　at　the　domestic　life　of　this　period。　We　are　commonly　disposed　to　　look　on　the　family　life　of　the　Italians　at　this　time　as　hopelessly　　ruined　by　the　national　immorality；　and　this　side　of　the　question　will　　be　more　fully　discussed　in　the　sequel。　For　the　moment　we　must　content　　ourselves　with　pointing　out　that　conjugal　infidelity　has　by　no　means　so　　disastrous　an　influence　on　family　life　in　Italy　as　in　the　North；　so　　long　at　least　as　certain　limits　are　not　overstepped。
  The　domestic　life　of　the　Middle　Ages　was　a　product　of　popular　morals；　　or　if　we　prefer　to　put　it　otherwise；　a　result　of　the　inborn　tendencies　　of　national　life；　modified　by　the　varied　circumstances　which　affected　　them。　Chivalry　at　the　time　of　its　splendor　left　domestic　economy　　untouched。　The　knight　wandered　from　court　to　court；　and　from　one　　battlefield　to　another。　His　homage　was　given　systematically　to　some　　other　woman　than　his　own　wife；　and　things　went　how　they　might　at　home　　in　the　castle。　The　spirit　of　the　Renaissance　first　brought　order　into　　domestic　life；　treating　it　as　a　work　of　deliberate　contrivance。　　Intelligent　economical　views；　and　a　rational　style　of　domestic　　architecture　served　to　promote　this　end。　But　the　chief　cause　of　the　　change　was　the　thoughtful　study　of　all　questions　relating　to　social　　intercourse；　to　education；　to　domestic　service　and　organization。
  The　most　precious　document　on　this　subject　is　the　treatise　on　the　　management　of　the　home　by　Agnolo　Pandolfini　（actually　written　by　L。　B。　　Alberti；　d。　1472）。　He　represents　a　father　speaking　to　his　grown…up　　sons；　and　initiating　them　into　his　method　of　administration。　We　are　　introduced　into　a　large　and　wealthy　household；　which；　if　governed　with　　moderation　and　reasonable　economy；　promises　happiness　and　prosperity　　for　generations　to　come。　A　considerable　landed　estate；　whose　produce　　furnishes　the　table　of　the　house；　and　serves　as　the　basis　of　the　family　　fortune；　is　combined　with　some　industrial　pursuit；　such　as　the　weaving　　of　wool　or　silk。　The　dwelling　is　solid　and　the　food　good。　All　that　has　　to　do　with　the　plan　and　arrangement　of　the　house　is　great；　durable　and　　costly；　but　the　daily　life　within　it　is　as　simple　as　possible。　All　　other　expenses；　from　the　largest　in　which　the　family　honour　is　at　　stake；　down　to　the　pocket…money　of　the　younger　sons；　stand　to　one　　another　in　a　rational；　not　a　conventional　relation。　Nothing　is　　considered　of　so　much　importance　as　education；　which　the　head　of　the　　house　gives　not　only　to　the　children；　but　to　the　whole　household。　He　　first　develops　his　wife　from　a　shy　girl；　brought　up　in　careful　　seclusion；　to　the　true　woman　of　the　house；　capable　of　commanding　and　　guiding　the　servants。　The　sons　are　brought　up　without　any　undue　　severity；　carefully　watched　and　counselled；　and　controlled　'rather　by　　authority　than　by　force。'　And　finally　the　servants　are　chosen　and　　treated　on　such　principles　that　they　gladly　and　faithfully　hold　by　the　　family。
  One　feature　of　that　book　must　be　referred　to；　which　is　by　no　means　　peculiar　to　it；　but　which　it　treats　with　special　warmth　the　love　of　　the　educated　Italian　for　country　life。　In　northern　countries　the　nobles　　lived　in　the　country　in　their　castles；　and　the　monks　of　the　higher　　orders　in　their　well…guarded　monasteries；　while　the　wealthiest　burghers　　dwelt　from　one　year's　end　to　another　in　the　cities。　But　in　Italy；　so　　far　as　the　neighbourhood　of　certain　towns　at　all　events　was　concerned；　　the　security　of　life　and　property　was　so　great；　and　the　passion　for　a　　country　residence　was　so　strong；　that　men　were　willing　to　risk　a　loss　　in　time　of　war。　Thus　arose　the　villa；　the　country…house　of　the　well…to…　do　citizen。　This　precious　inheritance　of　the　old　Roman　world　was　thus　　revived；　as　soon　as　the　wealth　and　culture　of　the　people　were　　sufficiently　advanced。
  Pandolfini　finds　at　his　villa　a　peace　and　happiness；　for　an　account　of　　which　the　reader　must　hear　him　speak　himself。　The　economical　side　of　　the　matter　is　that　one　and　the　same　property　must；　if　possible；　contain　　everything…　corn；　wine；　oil；　pastureland　and　woods；　and　that　in　such　　cases　the　property　was　paid　for　well；　since　nothing　needed　then　to　be　　got　from　the　market。　But　the　higher　enjoyment　derived　from　the　villa　is　　shown　by　some　words　of　the　introduction：　'Round　about　Florence　lie　many　　villas　in　a　transparent　atmosphere；　amid　cheerful　scenery；　and　with　a　　splendid　view；　there　is　little　fog　and　no　injurious　winds；　all　is　good；　　and　the　water　pure　and　healthy。　Of　the　numerous　buildings　many　are　like　　palaces；　many　like　castles　costly　and　beautiful　to　behold。'　He　is　　speaking　of　those　unrivalled　villas；　of　which　the　greater　number　were　　sacrificed；　though　vainly；　by　the　Florentines　themselves　in　the　defence　　of　their　city　in　1529。
  In　these　villas；　as　in　those　on　the　Brenta；　on　the　Lombard　hills；　at　　Posilippo　and　on　the　Vomero；　social　life　assumes　a　freer　and　more　rural　　character　than　in　the　palaces　within　the　city。　We　meet　with　charming　　descriptions　of　the　intercourse　of　the　guests；　the　hunting…parties；　and　　all　the　open…air　pursuits　and　amusements。　But　the　noblest　achievements　　of　poetry　and　thought　are　sometimes　also　dated　from　these　scenes　of　　rural　peace。
  Festivals
  It　is　by　no　arbitrary　choice　that　in　discussing　the　social　life　of　this　　period；　we　are　led　to　treat　of　the　processions　and　shows　which　formed　　part　of　the　popular　festivals。　The　artistic　power　of　which　the　Italians　　of　the　Renaissance　gave　proof　on　such　occasions；　was　attained　only　by　　means　of　that　free　intercourse　of　all　classes　which　formed　the　basis　of　　Italian　society。　In　Northern　Europe　the　monasteries；　the　courts；　and　　the　burghers　had　their　special　feasts　and　shows　as　in　Italy；　but　in　the　　one　case　the　form　and　substance　of　these　displays　differed　according　to　　the　class　which　took　part　in　them；　in　the　other　an　art　amid　culture　　common　to　the　whole　nation　stamped　them　with　both　a　higher　and　a　more　　popular　character。　The　decorative　architecture；　which　served　to　aid　in　　these　festivals；　deserves　a　chapter　to　itself　in　the　history　of　art；　　although　our　imagination　can　only　form　a　picture　of　it　from　the　　descriptions　which　have　been　left　to　us。　We　are　here　more　especially　　concerned　with　the　festival　as　a　higher　phase　in　the　life　of　the　　people；　in　which　its　religious；　moral；　and　poetical　ideas　took　visible　　shape。　The　Italian　festivals　in　their　best　form　mark　the　point　of　　transition　from　real　life　into　the　world　of　art。
  The　two　chief　forms　of　festal　display　were　originally　here；　as　　elsewhere　in　the　West；　the　Mystery；　or　the　dramatization　of　sacred　　history　and　legend；　and　the　Procession；　the　motive　and　character　of　　which　was　also　purely　ecclesiastical。
  The　performances　of　the　Mysteries　in　Italy　were　from　the　first　more　　frequent　and　splendid　than　elsewhere；　and　were　most　favorably　affected　　by　the　progress　of　poetry　and　of　the　other　arts。　In　the　course　of　time　　not　only　did　the　farce　and　the　secular　drama　branch　off　from　the　　Mystery；　as　in　other　countries　of　Europe；　but　the　pantomime　also；　with　　its　accompaniments　of　singing　and　dancing；　the　effect　of　which　depended　　on　the　richness　and　beauty　of　the　spectacle。
  The　Procession；　in　the　broad；　level；　and　well…paved　streets　of　the　　Italian　cities；　was