arities　and　　works　of　art。
  The　players；　apart　from　the　professional　performers；　were　either　single　　amateurs；　or　whole　orchestras　of　them；　organized　into　a　corporate　　Academy。　Many　artists　in　other　branches　were　at　home　in　music；　and　　often　masters　of　the　art。　People　of　position　were　averse　to　wind　　instruments；　for　the　same　reason　which　made　them　distasteful　to　　Alcibiades　and　Pallas　Athene。　In　good　society　singing；　either　alone　or　　accompanied　with　the　violin；　was　usual；　but　quartettes　of　string　　instruments　were　also　common；　and　the　'clavicembalo'　was　liked　on　　account　of　its　varied　effects。　In　singing；　the　solo　only　was　permitted；　　'for　a　single　voice　is　heard；　enjoyed；　and　judged　far　better。'　In　other　　words；　as　singing；　notwithstanding　all　conventional　modesty；　is　an　　exhibition　of　the　individual　man　of　society；　it　is　better　that　each　　should　be　seen　and　heard　separately。　The　tender　feelings　produced　in　　the　fair　listeners　are　taken　for　granted；　and　elderly　people　are　　therefore　recommended　to　abstain　from　such　forms　of　art；　even　though　　they　excel　in　them。　It　was　held　important　that　the　effect　of　the　song　　should　be　enhanced　by　the　impression　made　on　the　sight。　We　hear　　nothing；　however；　of　the　treatment　in　these　circles　of　musical　　composition　as　an　independent　branch　of　art。　On　the　other　hand　it　　happened　sometimes　that　the　subject　of　the　song　was　some　terrible　event　　which　had　befallen　the　singer　himself。
  This　dilettantism；　which　pervaded　the　middle　as　well　as　the　upper　　classes；　was　in　Italy　both　more　widespread　and　more　genuinely　artistic　　than　in　any　other　country　of　Europe。　Wherever　we　meet　with　a　　description　of　social　intercourse；　there　music　and　singing　are　always　　and　expressly　mentioned。　Hundreds　of　portraits　show　us　men　and　women；　　often　several　together；　playing　or　holding　some　musical　instrument；　and　　the　angelic　concerts　represented　in　the　ecclesiastical　pictures　prove　　how　familiar　the　painters　were　with　the　living　effects　of　music。　We　　read　of　the　lute…player　Antonio　Rota；　at　Padua　（d。　1549）；　who　became　a　　rich　man　by　his　lessons；　and　published　a　handbook　to　the　practice　of　　the　lute。
  At　a　time　when　there　was　no　opera　to　concentrate　and　monopolize　musical　　talent；　this　general　cultivation　of　the　art　must　have　been　something　　wonderfully　varied；　intelligent；　and　original。　It　is　another　question　　how　much　we　should　find　to　satisfy　us　in　these　forms　of　music；　could　　they　now　be　reproduced　for　us。
  Equality　of　Men　and　Women
  To　understand　the　higher　forms　of　social　intercourse　at　this　period；　we　　must　keep　before　our　minds　the　fact　that　women　stood　on　a　footing　of　　perfect　equality　with　men。　We　must　not　suffer　ourselves　to　be　misled　by　　the　sophistical　and　often　malicious　talk　about　the　assumed　inferiority　　of　the　female　sex；　which　we　meet　with　now　and　then　in　the　dialogues　of　　this　time；　nor　by　such　satires　as　the　third　of　Ariosto；　who　treats　　woman　as　a　dangerous　grown…up　child；　whom　a　man　must　learn　how　to　　manage；　in　spite　of　the　great　gulf　between　them。　There　is；　indeed；　a　　certain　amount　of　truth　in　what　he　says。　Just　because　the　educated　　woman　was　on　a　level　with　the　man；　that　communion　of　mind　and　heart　　which　comes　from　the　sense　of　mutual　dependance　and　completion；　could　　not　be　developed　in　marriage　at　this　time；　as　it　has　been　developed　　later　in　the　cultivated　society　of　the　North。
  The　education　given　to　women　in　the　upper　classes　was　essentially　the　　same　as　that　given　to　men。　The　Italian；　at　the　time　of　the　Renaissance；　　felt　no　scruple　in　putting　sons　and　daughters　alike　under　the　same　　course　of　literary　and　even　philological　instruction。　Indeed；　looking　　at　this　ancient　culture　as　the　chief　treasure　of　life；　he　was　glad　that　　his　girls　should　have　a　share　in　it。　We　have　seen　what　perfection　was　　attained　by　the　daughters　of　princely　houses　in　writing　and　speaking　　Latin。　Many　others　must　at　least　have　been　able　to　read　it；　in　order　to　　follow　the　conversation　of　the　day；　which　turned　largely　on　classical　　subjects。　An　active　interest　was　taken　by　many　in　Italian　poetry；　in　　which；　whether　prepared　or　improvised；　a　large　number　of　Italian　women；　　from　the　time　of　the　Venetian　Cassandra　Fedele　onwards　（about　the　close　　of　the　fifteenth　century）；　made　themselves　famous。　One；　indeed；　　Vittoria　Colonna；　may　be　called　immortal。　If　any　proof　were　needed　of　　the　assertion　made　above；　it　would　be　found　in　the　manly　tone　of　this　　poetry。　Even　the　love…sonnets　and　religious　poems　are　so　precise　and　　definite　in　their　character；　and　so　far　removed　from　the　tender　　twilight　of　sentiment；　and　from　all　the　dilettantism　which　we　commonly　　find　in　the　poetry　of　women；　that　we　should　not　hesitate　to　attribute　　them　to　male　authors；　if　we　had　not　clear　external　evidence　to　prove　　the　contrary。
  For；　with　education；　the　individuality　of　women　in　the　upper　classes　　was　developed　in　the　same　way　as　that　of　men。　Till　the　time　of　the　　Reformation；　the　personality　of　women　out　of　Italy；　even　of　the　highest　　rank；　comes　forward　but　little。　Exceptions　like　Isabella　of　Bavaria；　　Margaret　of　Anjou；　and　Isabella　of　Castile；　are　the　forced　result　of　　very　unusual　circumstances。　In　Italy；　throughout　the　whole　of　the　　fifteenth　century；　the　wives　of　the　rulers；　and　still　more　those　of　the　　Condottieri；　have　nearly　all　a　distinct；　recognizable　personality；　and　　take　their　share　of　notoriety　and　glory。　To　these　came　gradually　to　be　　added　a　crowd　of　famous　women　of　the　most　varied　kind；　among　them　those　　whose　distinction　consisted　in　the　fact　that　their　beauty；　disposition；　　education；　virtue；　and　piety；　combined　to　render　them　harmonious　human　　beings。　There　was　no　question　of　'woman's　rights'　or　female　　emancipation；　simply　because　the　thing　itself　was　a　matter　of　course。　　The　educated　woman；　no　less　than　the　man；　strove　naturally　after　a　　characteristic　and　complete　individuality。　The　same　intellectual　and　　emotional　development　which　perfected　the　man；　was　demanded　for　the　　perfection　of　the　woman。　Active　literary　world；　nevertheless；　was　not　　expected　from　her；　and　if　she　were　a　poet；　some　powerful　utterance　of　　feeling；　rather　than　the　confidences　of　the　novel　or　the　diary；　was　　looked　for。　These　women　had　no　thought　of　the　public；　their　function　　was　to　influence　distinguished　men；　and　to　moderate　male　impulse　and　　caprice。
  The　highest　praise　which　could　then　be　given　to　the　great　Italian　women　　was　that　they　had　the　mind　and　the　courage　of　men。　We　have　only　to　　observe　the　thoroughly　manly　bearing　of　most　of　the　women　in　the　heroic　　poems；　especially　those　of　Boiardo　and　Ariosto；　to　convince　ourselves　　that　we　have　before　us　the　ideal　of　the　time。　The　title　'virago；'　which　　is　an　equivocal　compliment　in　the　present　day；　then　implied　nothing　but　　praise。　It　was　borne　in　all　its　glory　by　Caterina　Sforza；　wife　and　　afterwards　widow　of　Girolamo　Riario；　whose　hereditary　possession；　　Forli；　she　gallantly　defended　first　against　his　murderers；　and　then　　against　Cesare　Borgia。　Though　finally　vanquished；　she　retained　the　　admiration　of　her　countrymen　and　the　title　'prima　donna　d'Italia。'　This　　heroic　vein　can　be　detected　in　many　of　the　women　of　the　Renaissance；　　though　none　found　the　same　opportunity　of　showing　their　heroism　to　the　　world。　In　Isabella　Gonzaga　this　type　is　clearly　recognizable。
  Women　of　this　stamp　could　listen　to　novels　like　those　of　Bandello；　　without　social　intercourse　suffering　from　it。　The　ruling　genius　of　　society　was　not；　as　now；　womanhood；　or　the　respect　for　certain　　presuppositions；　mysteries；　and　susceptibilities；　but　the　consciousness　　of　energy；　of　beauty；　and　of　a　social　state　full　of　danger　and　　opportunity。　And　for　this　reason　we　find；　side　by　side　with　the　most　　measured　and　polished　social　forms；　something　our　age　would　call　　immodesty；　forgetting　that　by　which　it　was　corrected　and　counter…　balanced　the　powerful　characters　of　the　women　who　were　exposed　to　it。
  That　in　all　the　dialogues　and　treatises　together　we　can　find　no　　absolute　evidence　on　these　points　is　only　natural；　however　freely　the　　nature　of　love　and　the　position　and　capacities　of　women　were　discussed。
  What　seems　to　have　been　wanting　in　this　society　were　the　young　girls　　who；　even　when　not　brought　up　in　the　monasteries；　were　still　carefully　　kept　away　from　it。　It　is　not　easy　to　say　whether　their　absence　was　the　　cause　of　the　greater　freedom　of　conversation；　or　whether　they　were　　removed　on　account　of　it。
  Even　the　intercourse　with　courtesans　seems　to　have　assumed　a　more　　elevated　character；　reminding　us　of　the　position　of　the　Hetairae　in　　classical　Athens。　The　famous　Roman　courtesan　Imperia　was　a　woman　of　　intelligence　and　culture；　had　learned　from　a　certain　Domenico　Campana　　the　art　of　making　sonnets；　and　was　not　without　musical　accomplishments。　　The　beautiful　Isabella　de　Luna；　of　Spanish　extraction；　who　was　reckoned　　amusing　company；　seems　to　have　been　an　odd　compound　of　a　kind　heart　　with　a　shockingly　foul　tongue；　which　latter　sometimes　brought　her　into　　trouble。　At　Milan；　Bandello　knew　the　majestic　Caterina　di　San　Celso；　　who　played　and　sang　and　recited　superbly。　It　is　clear　from　all　we　read　　on　the　subject　that　the　distinguished　people　who　visited　these　women；　　and　from　time　to　time　lived　with　them；　demand