Apart；　however；　from　this　particular　prop　of　knighthood；　we　find　here　　and　there　in　Italy；　for　example　at　Ferrara；　orders　of　courtiers　whose　　members　had　a　right　to　the　title　of　_Cavaliere。
  _
  But；　great　as　were　individual　ambitions；　and　the　vanities　of　nobles　and　　knights；　it　remains　a　fact　that　the　Italian　nobility　took　its　place　in　　the　centre　of　social　life；　and　not　at　the　extremity。　We　find　it　　habitually　mixing　with　other　classes　on　a　footing　of　perfect　equality；　　and　seeking　its　natural　allies　in　culture　and　intelligence。　It　is　true　　that　for　the　courtier　a　cer…　tain　rank　of　nobility　was　required；　but　　this　exigence　is　expressly　declared　to　be　caused　by　a　prejudice　rooted　　in　the　public　mind　'per　l'opinion　universale'and　never　was　held　to　　imply　the　belief　that　the　personal　worth　of　one　who　was　not　of　noble　　blood　was　in　any　degree　lessened　thereby；　nor　did　it　follow　from　this　　rule　that　the　prince　was　limited　to　the　nobility　for　his　society。　It　　meant　simply　that　the　perfect　manthe　true　courtiershould　not　be　　wanting　in　any　conceivable　advantage；　and　therefore　not　in　this。　If　in　　all　the　relations　of　life　he　was　specially　bound　to　maintain　a　　dignified　and　reserved　demeanor；　the　reason　was　not　found　in　the　blood　　which　flowed　in　h…s　veins；　but　in　the　perfection　of　manner　which　was　　demanded　from　him。　We　are　here　in　the　presence　of　a　modern　　distinctiori；　based　on　culture　and　on　wealth；　but　on　the　latter　solely　　because　it　enables　men　to　devote　their　life　to　the　former；　and　　effectually　to　promote　its　interests　and　advancement。
  Costumes　and　Fashions
  But　in　proportion　as　distinctions　of　birth　ceased　to　confer　any　special　　privilege；　was　the　individual　himself　compelled　to　make　the　most　of　his　　personal　qualities；　and　society　to　find　its　worth　and　charm　in　itself。　　The　demeanor　of　individuals；　and　all　the　higher　forms　of　social　　intercourse；　became　ends　pursued　a　deliberate　and　artistic　purpose。
  Even　the　outward　appearance　of　men　and　women　and　the　habits　of　daily　　life　were　more　perfect；　more　beautiful；　and　more　polished　than　among　　the　other　nations　of　Europe。　The　dwellings　of　the　upper　classes　fall　　rather　within　the　province　of　the　history　of　art；　but　we　may　note　how　　far　the　castle　and　the　city　mansion　in　Italy　surpassed　in　comfort；　　order；　and　harmony　the　dwellings　of　the　northern　noble。　The　style　of　　dress　varied　sc　continually　that　it　is　impossible　to　make　any　complete　　comparison　with　the　fashions　of　other　countries；　all　the　more　because　　since　the　close　of　the　fifteenth　century　imitations　of　the　latter　were　　frequent。　The　costumes　of　the　time；　as　given　us　by　the　Italian　　painters；　are　the　most　convenient；　and　the　most　pleasing　to　the　eye　　which　were　then　to　be　found　in　Europe；　but　we　cannot　be　sure　if　they　　represent　the　prevalent　fashion；　or　if　they　are　faithfully　reproduced　　by　the　artist。　It　is　nevertheless　beyond　a　doubt　that　nowhere　was　so　　much　importance　attached　to　dress　as　in　Italy。　The　nation　was；　and　is；　　vain；　and　even　serious　men　among　it　looked　on　a　handsome　and　becoming　　costume　as　an　element　in　the　perfection　of　the　individual。　At　Florence；　　indeed；　there　was　a　brief　period　when　dress　was　a　purely　personal　　matter；　and　every　man　set　the　fashion　for　himself；　and　till　far　into　　the　sixteenth　century　there　were　exceptional　people　who　still　had　the　　courage　to　do　so；　and　the　majority　at　all　events　showed　themselves　　capable　of　varying　the　fashion　according　to　their　individual　tastes。　It　　is　a　symptom　of　decline　when　Giovanni　della　Casa　warns　his　readers　not　　to　be　singular　or　to　depart　from　existing　fashions　Our　own　age；　which；　　in　men's　dress　at　any　rate；　treats　uniformity　as　the　supreme　law；　gives　　up　by　so　doing　far　more　than　it　is　aware　of。　But　it　saves　itself　much　　time；　and　this；　according　to　our　notions　of　business；　outweighs　all　　other　disadvantages。
  In　Venice　and　Florence　at　the　time　of　the　Renaissance　there　were　rules　　and　regulations　prescribing　the　dress　of　the　men　and　restraining　the　　luxury　of　the　women。　Where　the　fashions　were　more　free；　as　in　Naples；　　the　moralists　confess　with　regret　that　no　difference　can　be　observed　　between　noble　and　burgher。　They　further　deplore　the　rapid　changes　of　　fashion；　andif　we　rightly　understand　their　wordsthe　senseless　　idolatry　of　whatever　comes　from　France；　though　in　many　cases　the　　fashions　which　were　received　back　from　the　French　were　originally　　Italian。　It　does　not　further　concern　us　how　far　these　frequent　changes；　　and　the　adoption　of　French　and　Spanish　ways；　contributed　to　the　　national　passion　for　external　display；　but　we　find　in　them　additional　　evidence　of　the　rapid　movement　of　life　in　Italy　in　the　decades　before　　and　after　the　year　1500。
  We　may　note　in　particular　the　efforts　of　the　women　to　alter　their　　appearance　by　all　the　means　which　the　toilette　could　afford。　In　no　　country　of　Europe　since　the　fall　of　the　Roman　Empire　was　so　much　　trouble　taken　to　modify　the　face；　the　color　of　the　skin　and　the　growth　　of　the　hair；　as　in　Italy　at　this　time。　All　tended　to　the　formation　of　a　　conventional　type；　at　the　cost　of　the　most　striking　and　transparent　　deceptions。　Leaving　out　of　account　costume　in　general；　which　in　the　　fourteenth　century　was　in　the　highest　degree　varied　in　color　and　loaded　　with　ornament；　and　at　a　later　period　assumed　a　character　of　more　　harmonious　richness；　we　here　limit　ourselves　more　particularly　to　the　　toilette　in　the　narrower　sense。
  No　sort　of　ornament　was　more　in　use　than　false　hair；　often　made　of　　white　or　yellow　silk。81　The　law　denounced　and　forbade　it　in　vain；　till　　some　preacher　of　repentance　touched　the　worldly　minds　of　the　wearers。　　Then　was　seen；　in　the　middle　of　the　public　square；　a　lofty　pyre　　（talamo）；　on　which；　besides　lutes；　diceboxes；　masks；　magical　charms；　　song…books；　and　other　vanities；　lay　masses　of　false　hair；　which　the　　purging　fires　soon　turned　into　a　heap　of　ashes。　The　ideal　color　sought　　for　both　natural　and　artificial　hair　was　blond。　And　as　the　sun　was　　supposed　to　have　the　power　of　making　the　hair　this　color；　many　ladies　　would　pass　their　whole　time　in　the　open　air　on　sunshiny　days。　Dyes　and　　other　mixtures　were　also　used　freely　for　the　same　purpose。　Besides　all　　these；　we　meet　with　an　endless　list　of　beautifying　waters；　plasters；　　and　paints　for　every　single　part　of　the　faceeven　for　the　teeth　and　　eyelidsof　which　in　our　day　we　can　form　no　conception。　The　ridicule　of　　the　poets；　the　invectives　of　the　preachers；　and　the　experience　of　the　　baneful　effects　of　these　cosmetics　on　the　skin；　were　powerless　to　　hinder　women　from　giving　their　faces　an　unnatural　form　and　color。　It　is　　possible　that　the　frequent　and　splendid　representations　of　Mysteries；82　　at　which　hundreds　of　people　appeared　painted　and　masked；　helped　to　　further　this　practice　in　daily　life。　It　is　certain　that　it　was　　widespread；　and　that　the　countrywomen　vied　in　this　respect　with　their　　sisters　in　the　towns。　It　was　vain　to　preach　that　such　decorations　were　　the　mark　of　the　courtesan；　the　most　honorable　matrons；　who　all　the　year　　round　never　touched　paint；　used　it　nevertheless　on　holidays　when　they　　showed　themselves　in　public。　But　whether　we　look　on　this　bad　habit　as　a　　remnant　of　barbarism；　to　which　the　painting　of　savages　is　a　parallel；　　or　as　a　consequence　of　the　desire　for　perfect　youthful　beauty　in　　feature　and　in　color；　as　the　art　and　complexity　of　the　toilette　would　　lead　us　to　thinkin　either　case　there　was　no　lack　of　good　advice　on　　the　part　of　the　men。　The　use　of　perfumes；　too；　went　beyond　all　　reasonable　limits。　They　were　applied　to　everything　with　which　human　　beings　came　into　contact。　At　festivals　even　the　mules　were　treated　with　　scents　and　ointments；　and　Pietro　Aretino　thanks　Cosimo　I　for　a　perfumed　　roll　of　money。
  The　Italians　of　that　day　lived　in　the　belief　that　they　were　more　　cleanly　than　other　nations。　There　are　in　fact　general　reasons　which　　speak　rather　for　than　against　this　claim。　Cleanliness　is　indispensable　　to　our　modern　notion　of　social　perfection；　which　was　developed　in　Italy　　earlier　than　elsewhere。　That　the　Italians　were　one　of　the　richest　of　　existing　peoples；　is　another　presumption　in　their　favour。　Proof；　either　　for　or　against　these　pretensions；　can　of　course　never　be　forthcoming；　　and　if　the　question　were　one　of　priority　in　establishing　rules　of　　cleanliness；　the　chivalrous　poetry　of　the　Middle　Ages　is　perhaps　in　　advance　of　anything　that　Italy　can　produce。　It　is　nevertheless　certain　　that　the　singular　neatness　and　cleanliness　of　some　distinguished　　representatives　of　the　Renaissance；　especially　in　their　behavior　at　　meals；　was　noticed　expressly；83　and　that　'German'　was　the　synonym　in　　Italy　for　all　that　is　filthy。　The　dirty　habits　which　Massimiliano　　Sforza　picked　up　in　the　course　of　his　German　education；　and　the　notice　　they　attracted　on　his　return　to　Italy；　are　recorded　by　Giovio。　It　is　at　　the　same　time　very　curious　that；　at　least　in　the　fifteenth　century；　the　　inns　and　hotels　were　left　chiefly　in　the　hands　of　Germans；　who　　probably；　however；　made　their　profit　mostly　out　of　the　pilgrims　　journeying　to　Rome。　Yet　the　statements　on　this　point　may　refer　mainly　　to　the　country　districts；　since　it　is　notorious　that　in　the　great　　cities　Italian　hotels　held　the　first　place。　The　want　of　decent　inns　i