Niccoli；　and　Lorenzo　Medici；　brother　of　the　great　Cosimo　that　there　　is　no　other　nobility　than　that　of　personal　merit。　The　keenest　shafts　of　　his　ridicule　are　directed　against　much　of　what　vulgar　prejudice　thinks　　indispensable　to　an　aristocratic　life。　'A　man　is　！111　the　farther　　removed　from　true　nobility；　the　longer　his　forefathers　have　plied　the　　trade　of　brigands。　The　taste　for　hawking　and　hunting　saviours　no　more　　of　nobility　than　the　nests　and　lairs　of　the　hunted　creatures　of　　spikenard。　The　cultivation　of　the　soil；　as　practiced　by　the　ancients；　　would　be　much　nobler　than　this　senseless　wandering　through　the　hills　　and　woods；　by　which　men　make　themselves　like　to　the　brutes　than　to　the　　reasonable　creatures。　It　may　serve　well　enough　as　a　recreation；　but　not　　as　the　business　of　a　lifetime。'　The　life　of　the　English　and　French　　chivalry　in　the　country　or　in　the　woody　fastnesses　seems　to　him　　thoroughly　ignoble；　and　worst　of　all　the　doings　of　the　robber…knights　　of　Germany。　Lorenzo　here　begins　to　take　the　part　of　the　nobility；　but　　not　which　is　characteristicappealing　to　any　natural　sentiment　in　　its　favour；　but　because　Aristotle　in　the　fifth　book　of　the　Politics　　recognizes　the　nobility　as　existent；　and　defines　it　as　resting　on　　excellence　and　inherited　wealth。　To　this　Niccoli　retorts　that　Aristotle　　gives　this　not　as　his　own　conviction；　but　as　the　popular　impression；　in　　his　Ethics；　where　he　speaks　as　he　thinks；　he　calls　him　noble　who　　strives　after　that　which　is　truly　good。　Lorenzo　urges　upon　him　vainly　　that　the　Greek　word　for　nobility　（Eugeneia）　means　good　birth；　Niccoli　　thinks　the　Roman　word　'nobilis'　（i。e。　remark…　able）　a　better　one；　since　　it　makes　nobility　depend　on　a　man's　deeds。　Together　with　these　　discussions；　we　find　a　sketch　of　the　conditions　of　the　nobles　in　　various　parts　of　Italy。　In　Naples　they　will　not　work；　and　busy　　themselves　neither　with　their　own　estates　nor　with　trade　and　commerce；　　which　they　hold　to　be　discreditable；　they　either　loiter　at　home　or　ride　　about　on　horseback。　The　Roman　nobility　also　despise　trade；　but　farm　　their　own　property；　the　cultivation　of　the　land　even　opens　the　way　to　a　　title；　it　is　a　respectable　but　boorish　nobility。　In　Lombardy　the　nobles　　live　upon　the　rent　of　their　inherited　estates；　descent　and　the　　abstinence　from　any　regular　calling；　constitute　nobility。　In　Venice；　　the　'nobili；'　the　ruling　caste；　were　all　merchants。　Similarly　in　Genoa　　the　nobles　and　nonnobles　were　alike　merchants　and　sailors；　and　only　　separated　by　their　birth：　some　few　of　the　former；　it　is　true；　still　　lurked　as　brigands　in　their　mountain　castles。　In　Florence　a　part　of　the　　old　nobility　had　devoted　themselves　to　trade；　another；　and　cer…　tainly　　by　far　the　smaller　part；　enjoyed　the　satisfaction　of　their　titles；　and　　spent　their　time；　either　in　nothing　at　all；　or　else　in　hunting　and　　hawking。
  The　decisive　fact　was；　that　nearly　everywhere　in　Italy；　even　those　who　　might　be　disposed　to　pride　themselves　on　their　birth　could　not　make　　good　the　claims　against　the　power　of　culture　and　of　wealth；　and　that　　their　privileges　in　politics　and　at　court　were　not　sufficient　to　　encourage　any　strong　feeling　of　caste。　Venice　offers　only　an　apparent　　exception　to　this　rule；　for　there　the　'nobili'　led　the　same　life　as　　their　fellow…citizens；　and　were　distinguished　by　few　honorary　　privileges。　The　case　was　certainly　different　at　Naples；　which　the　　strict　isolation　and　the　ostentatious　vanity　of　its　nobility　excluded；　　above　all　other　causes；　from　the　spiritual　movement　of　the　Renaissance。　　The　traditions　of　medieval　Lombardy　and　Normandy；　and　the　French　　aristocratic　influences　which　followed；　all　tended　in　this　direction；　　and　the　Aragonese　government；　which　was　established　by　the　middle　of　　the　fifteenth　century；　completed　the　work；　and　accomplished　in　Naples　　what　followed　a　hundred　years　later　in　the　rest　of　Italya　social　　transformation　in　obedience　to　Spanish　ideas；　of　which　the　chief　　features　were　the　contempt　for　work　and　the　passion　for　titles。　The　　effect　of　this　new　influence　was　evident；　even　in　the　smaller　towns；　　before　the　year　1500。　We　hear　complaints　from　La　Cava　that　the　place　　had　been　proverbially　rich；　as　long　as　it　was　filled　with　masons　and　　weavers；　whilst　now；　since　instead　of　looms　and　trowels　nothing　but　　spurs；　stirrups　and　gilded　belts　was　to　be　seen；　since　everybody　was　　trying　to　become　Doctor　of　Laws　or　of　Medicine；　Notary；　Officer　or　　Knight；　the　most　intolerable　poverty　prevailed。　In　Florence　an　　analogous　change　appears　to　have　taken　place　by　the　time　of　Cosimo；　the　　first　Grand　Duke；　he　is　thanked　for　adopting　the　young　people；　who　now　　despise　trade　and　commerce；　as　knights　of　his　order　of　St。　Stephen。　　This　goes　straight　in　the　teeth　of　the　good　old　Florentine　custom；　by　　which　fathers　left　property　to　their　children　on　the　condition　that　　they　should　have　some　occupation。　But　a　mania　for　titles　of　a　curious　　and　ludicrous　sort　sometimes　crossed　and　thwarted；　especially　among　the　　Florentines；　the　levelling　influence　of　art　and　culture。　This　was　the　　passion　hood；　which　became　one　of　the　most　striking　follies　at　a　time　　when　the　dignity　itself　had　lost　every　significance。
  'A　few　years　ago；'　writes　Franco　Sacchetti；　towards　the　end　of　the　　fourteenth　century；　'everybody　saw　how　all　the　workpeople　down　to　the　　bakers；　how　all　the　wool…carders；　usurers　money…changers　and　　blackguards　of　all　description；　became　knights。　Why　should　an　official　　need　knighthood　when　he　goes　to　preside　over　some　little　provincial　　town？　What　has　this　title　to　do　with　any　ordinary　bread…winning　　pursuit？　How　art　thou　sunken；　unhappy　dignity！　Of　all　the　long　list　of　　knightly　duties；　what　single　one　do　these　knights　of　ours　discharge？　I　　wished　to　speak　of　these　things　that　the　reader　might　see　that　　knighthood　is　dead。　And　as　we　have　gone　so　far　as　to　confer　the　honour　　upon　dead　men；　why　not　upon　figures　of　wood　and　stone；　and　why　not　upon　　an　ox？'　The　stories　which　Sacchetti　tells　by　way　of　illustration　speak　　plainly　enough。　There　we　read　how　Bernabo　Visconti　knighted　the　victor　　in　a　drunken　brawl；　and　then　did　the　same　derisively　to　the　vanquished；　　how　Ger…　man　knights　with　their　decorated　helmets　and　devices　were　　ridiculedand　more　of　the　same　kind。　At　a　later　period　Poggio　makes　　merry　over　the　many　knights　of　his　day　without　a　horse　and　without　　military　training。　Those　who　wished　to　assert　the　privilege　of　the　　order；　and　ride　out　with　lance　and　colors；　found　in　Florence　that　they　　might　have　to　face　the　government　as　well　as　the　jokers。
  On　considering　the　matter　more　closely；　we　shall　find　that　this　belated　　chivalry；　independent　of　all　nobility　of　birth；　though　partly　the　fruit　　of　an　insane　passion　for　titles；　had　nevertheless　another　and　a　better　　side。　Tournaments　had　not　yet　ceased　to　be　practiced；　and　no　one　could　　take　part　in　them　who　was　not　a　knight。　But　the　combat　in　the　lists；　　and　especially　the　difficult　and　perilous　tilting　with　the　lance；　　offered　a　favourable　opportunity　for　the　display　of　strength；　skill；　　and　courage；　which　no　one；　whatever　might　be　his　origin；　would　　willingly　neglect　in　an　age　which　laid　such　stress　on　personal　merit。
  It　was　in　vain　that　from　the　time　of　Petrarch　downwards　the　tournament　　was　denounced　as　a　dangerous　folly。　No　one　was　converted　by　the　　pathetic　appeal　of　the　poet：　'In　what　book　do　we　read　that　Scipio　and　　Caesar　were　skilled　at　the　joust？'　The　practice　became　more　and　more　　popular　in　Florence。　Every　honest　citizen　came　to　consider　his　　tournament　now；　no　doubt；　less　dangerous　than　formerlyas　a　　fashionable　sport。　Franco　Sacchetti　has　left　us　a　ludicrous　picture　of　　one　of　these　holiday　cavaliersa　notary　seventy　years　old。　He　rides　　out　on　horseback　to　Peretola；　where　the　tournament　was　cheap；　on　a　jade　　hired　from　a　dyer。　A　thistle　is　stuck　by　some　wag　under　the　tail　of　the　　steed；　who　takes　fright；　runs　away；　and　carries　the　helmeted　rider；　　bruised　and　shaken；　back　into　the　city。　The　inevitable　conclusion　of　　the　story　is　a　severe　curtain…lecture　from　the　wife；　who　is　not　a　　little　enraged　at　these　break…neck　follies　of　her　husband。
  It　may　be　mentioned　in　conclusion　that　a　passionate　interest　in　this　　sport　was　displayed　by　the　Medici；　as　if　they　wished　to　show　private　　citizens　as　they　were；　without　noble　blood　in　their　veins　that　the　　society　which　surrounded　them　was　in　no　respect　inferior　to　a　Court。　　Even　under　Cosimo　（1459）；　and　afterwards　under　the　elder　Pietro；　　brilliant　tournaments　were　held　at　Florence。　The　younger　Pietro　　neglected　the　duties　of　government　for　these　amusements　and　would　never　　suffer　himself　to　be　painted　except　clad　in　armor。　The　same　practice　　prevailed　at　the　Court　of　Alexander　VI；　and　when　the　Cardinal　Ascanio　　Sforza　asked　the　Turkish　Prince　Djem　how　he　liked　the　spectacle；　the　　barbarian　replied　with　much　discretion　that　such　combats　in　his　country　　only　took　place　among　slaves；　since　then；　in　the　case　of　accident；　　nobody　was　the　worse　for　it。　The　Oriental　was　unconsciously　in　accord　　with　the　old　Romans　in　condemning　the　manners　of　the　Middle　Ages。
  Apart；　however；　from　this　particular　prop　of　knighthood；　we　find　here　　and　there　in　Italy；　for　example　at　Ferrara；　orders　of　courtiers　whose　　members