ontano　mentions　with　admiration　　instances　of　the　fortitude　of　the　savage　inhabitants　of　the　Abruzzi；　in　　the　biographical　collections　and　in　the　novelists　we　meet　with　the　　figure　of　the　heroic　peasant…maiden　who　hazards　her　life　to　defend　her　　family　and　her　honour。
  Such　conditions　made　the　poetical　treatment　of　country　life　possible。　　The　first　instance　we　shall　mention　is　that　of　Battista　Mantovano；　　whose　eclogues；　once　much　read　and　still　worth　reading；　appeared　among　　his　earliest　works　about　1480。　They　are　a　mixture　of　real　and　　conventional　rusticity；　but　the　former　tends　to　prevail。　They　represent　　the　mode　of　thought　of　a　well…meaning　village　clergyman；　not　without　a　　certain　leaning　to　liberal　ideas。　As　Carmelite　monk；　the　writer　may　　have　had　occasion　to　mix　freely　with　the　peasantry。
  But　it　is　with　a　power　of　a　wholly　different　kind　that　Lorenzo　il　　Magnifico　transports　himself　into　the　peasant's　world。　His　'Nencia　di　　Barberino'　reads　like　a　crowd　of　genuine　extracts　from　the　popular　　songs　of　the　Florentine　country；　fused　into　a　great　stream　of　octaves。　　The　objectivity　of　the　writer　is　such　that　we　are　in　doubt　whether　the　　speakerthe　young　peasant　Vallera；　who　declares　his　love　to　Nencia　awakens　his　sympathy　or　ridicule。　The　deliberate　contrast　to　the　　conventional　eclogue　is　unmistakable。　Lorenzo　surrenders　himself　　purposely　to　the　realism　of　simple；　rough　country　life；　and　yet　his　　work　makes　upon　us　the　impression　of　true　poetry。
  The　'Beca　da　Dicomano'　of　Luigi　Pulci　is　an　admitted　counterpart　to　the　　'Nencia'　of　Lorenzo。　But　the　deeper　purpose　is　wanting。　The　'Beca'　is　　written　not　so　much　from　the　inward　need　to　give　a　picture　of　popular　　life；　as　from　the　desire　to　win　the　approbation　of　the　educated　　Florentine　world　by　a　successful　poem。　Hence　the　greater　and　more　　deliberate　coarseness　of　the　scenes；　and　the　indecent　jokes。　　Nevertheless；　the　point　of　view　of　the　rustic　lover　is　admirably　　maintained。
  Third　in　this　company　of　poets　comes　Angelo　Poliziano；　with　his　　'Rusticus'　in　Latin　hexameters。　Keeping　clear　of　all　imitation　of　　Virgil's　Georgics；　he　describes　the　year　of　the　Tuscan　peasant；　　beginning　with　the　late　autumn；　when　the　countryman　gets　ready　his　new　　plough　and　prepares　the　seed　for　the　winter。　The　picture　of　the　meadows　　in　spring　is　full　and　beautiful；　and　the　'Summer'　has　fine　passages；　　but　the　vintage…feast　in　autumn　is　one　of　the　gems　of　modern　Latin　　poetry。　Politian　wrote　poems　in　Italian　as　well　as　Latin；　from　which　we　　may　infer　that　in　Lorenzo's　circle　it　was　possible　to　give　a　realistic　　picture　of　the　passionate　life　of　the　lower　classes。　His　gipsy's　love…　song　is　one　of　the　earliest　products　of　that　wholly　modern　tendency　to　　put　oneself　with　poetic　consciousness　into　the　position　of　another　　class。　This　had　probably　been　attempted　for　ages　with　a　view　to　satire；　　and　the　opportunity　for　it　was　offered　in　Florence　at　every　carnival　by　　the　songs　of　the　maskers。　But　the　sympathetic　understanding　of　the　　feeling　of　another　class　was　new；　and　with　it　the　'Nencia'　and　this　　'Canzone　zingaresca'　mark　a　new　starting…point　in　the　history　of　　poetry。
  Here；　too；　we　must　briefly　indicate　how　culture　prepared　the　way　for　　artistic　development。　From　the　time　of　the　'Nencia；'　a　period　of　eighty　　years　elapses　to　the　rustic　genre…painting　of　Jacopo　Bassano　and　his　　school。
  In　the　next　part　of　this　work　we　shall　show　how　differences　of　birth　　had　lost　their　significance　in　Italy。　Much　of　this　was　doubtless　owing　　to　the　fact　that　men　and　mankind　were　here　first　thoroughly　and　　profoundly　understood。　This　one　single　result　of　the　Renaissance　is　　enough　to　fill　us　with　everlasting　thankfulness。　The　logical　notion　of　　humanity　was　old　enoughbut　here　the　notion　became　a　fact。
  The　loftiest　conceptions　on　this　subject　were　uttered　by　Pico　della　　Mirandola　in　his　Speech　on　the　Dignity　of　Man；　which　may　justly　be　　called　one　of　the　noblest　of　that　great　age。　God；　he　tells　us；　made　man　　at　the　close　of　the　creation；　to　know　the　laws　of　the　universe；　to　love　　its　beauty；　to　admire　its　greatness。　He　bound　him　to　no　fixed　place；　to　　no　prescribed　form　of　work；　and　by　no　iron　necessity；　but　gave　him　　freedom　to　will　and　to　love。　'I　have　set　thee；'　says　the　Creator　to　　Adam；　'in　the　midst　of　the　world；　that　thou　mayst　the　more　easily　　behold　and　see　all　that　is　therein。　I　created　thee　a　being　neither　　heavenly　nor　earthly；　neither　mortal　nor　immortal　only；　that　thou　　mightest　be　free　to　shape　and　to　overcome　thyself。　Thou　mayst　sink　into　　a　beast；　and　be　born　anew　to　the　divine　likeness。　The　brutes　bring　from　　their　mother's　body　what　they　will　carry　with　them　as　long　as　they　　live；　the　higher　spirits　are　from　the　beginning；　or　soon　after；　what　　they　will　be　for　ever。　To　thee　alone　is　given　a　growth　and　a　　development　depending　on　thine　own　free　will。　Thou　bearest　in　thee　the　　germs　of　a　universal　life。'
  Part　Five
  SOCIETY　AND　FESTIVALS
  Equality　of　Classes
  Every　period　of　civilization　which　forms　a　complete　and　consistent　　whole　manifests　itself　not　only　in　political　life；　in　religion；　art；　　and　science；　but　also　sets　its　characteristic　stamp　on　social　life。　　Thus　the　Middle　Ages　had　their　courtly　and　aristocratic　manners　and　　etiquette；　differing　but　little　in　the　various　countries　of　Europe；　as　　well　as　their　peculiar　forms　of　middle…class　life。
  Italian　customs　at　the　time　of　the　Renaissance　offer　in　these　respects　　the　sharpest　contrasts　to　medievalism。　The　foundation　on　which　they　　rest　is　wholly　different。　Social　intercourse　in　its　highest　and　most　　perfect　form　now　ignored　all　distinctions　of　caste；　and　was　based　　simply　on　the　existence　of　an　educated　class　as　we　now　understand　the　　word。　Birth　and　origin　were　without　influence；　unless　combined　with　　leisure　and　inherited　wealth。　Yet　this　assertion　must　not　be　taken　in　　an　absolute　and　unqualified　sense；　since　medieval　distinctions　still　　sometimes　made　themselves　felt　to　a　greater　or　less　degree；　if　only　as　　a　means　of　maintaining　equality　with　the　aristocratic　pretensions　of　　the　less　advanced　countries　of　Europe。　But　the　main　current　of　the　time　　went　steadily　towards　the　fusion　of　classes　in　the　modern　sense　of　the　　phrase。
  The　fact　was　of　vital　importance　that；　from　certainly　the　twelfth　　century　onwards；　the　nobles　and　the　burghers　dwelt　together　within　the　　walls　of　the　cities。　The　interests　and　pleasures　of　both　classes　were　　thus　identified；　and　the　feudal　lord　learned　to　look　at　society　from　　another　point　of　view　than　that　of　his　mountain　castle。　The　Church；　　too；　in　Italy　never　suffered　itself；　as　in　northern　countries；　to　be　　used　as　a　means　of　providing　for　the　younger　sons　of　noble　families。　　Bishoprics；　abbacies；　and　canonries　were　often　given　from　the　most　　unworthy　motives；　but　still　not　according　to　the　pedigrees　of　the　　applicants；　and　if　the　bishops　in　Italy　were　more　numerous；　poorer；　　and；　as　a　rule；　destitute　of　all　sovereign　rights；　they　still　lived　in　　the　cities　where　their　cathedrals　stood；　and　formed；　together　with　　their　chapters；　an　important　element　in　the　cultivated　society　of　the　　place。　In　the　age　of　despots　and　absolute　princes　which　followed；　the　　nobility　in　most　of　the　cities　had　the　motives　and　the　leisure　to　give　　themselves　up　to　a　private　life　free　from　the　political　danger　and　　adorned　with　all　that　was　elegant　and　enjoyable；　but　at　the　same　time　　hardly　distinguishable　from　that　of　the　wealthy　burgher。　And　after　the　　time　of　Dante；　when　the　new　poetry　and　literature　were　in　the　hands　of　　all　Italy；　when　to　this　was　added　the　revival　of　ancient　culture　and　　the　new　interest　in　man　as　such；　when　the　successful　Condottiere　became　　a　prince；　and　not　only　good　birth；　but　legitimate　birth；　ceased　to　be　　indispensable　for　a　throne；　it　might　well　seem　that　the　age　of　equality　　had　dawned；　and　the　belief　in　nobility　vanished　for　ever。
  From　a　theoretical　point　of　view；　when　the　appeal　was　made　to　　antiquity；　the　conception　of　nobility　could　be　both　justified　and　　condemned　from　Aristotle　alone。　Dante；　for　example；　derives　from　　Aristotle's　definition；　'Nobility　rests　on　excellence　and　inherited　　wealth；'　his　own　saying；　'Nobility　rests　on　personal　excellence　or　on　　that　of　forefathers。'　But　elsewhere　he　is　not　satisfied　with　this　　conclusion。　He　blames　himself；　because　even　in　Paradise；　while　talking　　with　his　ancestor　Cacciaguida；　he　made　mention　of　his　noble　origin；　　which　is　but　a　mantle　from　which　time　is　ever　cutting　something　away；　　unless　we　ourselves　add　daily　fresh　worth　to　it。　And　in　the　'Convito'　　he　disconnects　'nobile'　and　'nobilita'　from　every　condition　of　birth；　　and　identifies　the　idea　with　the　capacity　for　moral　and　intellectual　　eminence；　laying　a　special　stress　on　high　culture　by　calling　'nobilita'　　the　sister　of　'filosofia。'
  And　as　time　went　on；　the　greater　the　influence　of　humanism　on　the　　Italian　mind；　the　firmer　and　more　widespread　became　the　conviction　that　　birth　decides　nothing　as　to　the　goodness　or　badness　of　a　man。　In　the　　fifteenth　century　this　was　the　prevailing　opinion。　Poggio；　in　his　　dialogue　'On　nobility；'　agrees　with　his　interlocutors　Niccolo　　Niccoli；　and　Lorenzo　Medici；　brother　of　the　great　Cosimo　that　there　　is　no　other　nobility　than　that