Europe　were　in　the　　habit　of　making　insulting　and　derisive　attacks　on　one　another；　which；　　with　much　caricature；　contained　commonly　a　kernel　of　truth。　But　from　　the　first　the　Italians　surpassed　all　others　in　their　quick　apprehension　　of　the　mental　differences　among　cities　and　populations。　Their　local　　patriotism；　stronger　probably　than　in　any　other　medieval　people；　soon　　found　expression　in　literature；　and　allied　itself　with　the　current　　conception　of　'Fame。'　Topography　became　the　counterpart　of　biography；　　while　all　the　more　important　cities　began　to　celebrate　their　own　　praises　in　prose　and　verse；　writers　appeared　who　made　the　chief　towns　　and　districts　the　subject　partly　of　a　serious　comparative　description；　　partly　of　satire；　and　sometimes　of　notices　in　which　jest　and　earnest　　are　not　easy　to　be　distinguished。　Next　to　some　famous　passages　in　the　　'Divine　Comedy；'　we　have　here　the　'Dittamondo'　of　Uberti　（about　1360）。　　As　a　rule；　only　single　remarkable　facts　and　characteristics　are　here　　mentioned：　the　Feast　of　the　Crows　at　Sant'　Apollinare　in　Ravenna；　the　　springs　at　Treviso；　the　great　cellar　near　Vicenza；　the　high　duties　at　　Mantua；　the　forest　of　towers　at　Lucca。　Yet　mixed　up　with　all　this；　we　　find　laudatory　and　satirical　criticisms　of　every　kind。　Arezzo　figures　　with　the　crafty　disposition　of　its　citizens；　Genoa　with　the　　artificially　blackened　eyes　and　teeth　（？）　of　its　women；　Bologna　with　　its　prodigality；　Bergamo　with　its　coarse　dialect　and　hard…headed　　people。　In　the　fifteenth　century　the　fashion　was　to　belaud　one's　own　　city　even　at　the　expense　of　others。　Michele　Savonarola　allows　that；　in　　comparison　with　his　native　Padua；　only　Rome　and　Venice　are　more　　splendid；　and　Florence　perhaps　more　joyousby　which　our　knowledge　is　　naturally　not　much　extended。　At　the　end　of　the　century；　Jovianus　　Pontanus；　in　his　'Antonius；'　writes　an　imaginary　journey　through　Italy；　　simply　as　a　vehicle　for　malicious　observations。　But　in　the　sixteenth　　century　we　meet　with　a　series　of　exact　and　profound　studies　of　national　　characteristics；　such　as　no　other　people　of　that　time　could　rival。　　Machiavelli　sets　forth　in　some　of　his　valuable　essays　the　character　and　　the　political　condition　of　the　Germans　and　French　in　such　a　way　that　　the　born　northerner；　familiar　with　the　history　of　his　own　country；　is　　grateful　to　the　Florentine　thinker　for　his　flashes　of　insight。　The　　Florentines　begin　to　take　pleasure　in　describing　themselves；　and　　basking　in　the　well…earned　sunshine　of　their　intellectual　glory；　their　　pride　seems　to　attain　its　height　when　they　derive　the　artistic　pre…　eminence　of　Tuscany　among　Italians；　not　from　any　special　gifts　of　　nature；　but　from　hard；　patient　work。　The　homage　of　famous　men　from　　other　parts　of　Italy；　of　which　the　sixteenth　Capitolo　of　Ariosto　is　a　　splendid　example；　they　accepted　as　a　merited　tribute　to　their　　excellence。
  Of　an　admirable　description　of　the　Italians；　with　their　various　　pursuits　and　characteristics；　though　in　a　few　words　and　with　special　　stress　laid　on　the　Lucchese；　to　whom　the　work　was　dedicated；　we　can　　give　only　the　title：　_Forcianae　Questiones；　_by　Ortensio　Landi；　Naples；　　1536。　Leandro　Alberti　is　not　so　fruitful　as　might　be　expected　in　his　　description　of　the　character　of　the　different　cities。　A　'Commentario'　　（by　Ortensio　Landi；　Venice；　1553）　contains　among　many　absurdities　some　　valuable　information　on　the　unfortunate　conditions　prevailing　about　the　　middle　of　the　century。
  To　what　extent　this　comparative　study　of　national　and　local　　characteristics　may；　by　means　of　Italian　humanism；　have　influenced　the　　rest　of　Europe；　we　cannot　say　with　precision。　To　Italy；　at　all　events；　　belongs　the　priority　in　this　respect；　as　in　the　description　of　the　　world　in　general。
  Description　of　the　Outward　Man
  But　the　discoveries　made　with　regard　to　man　were　not　confined　to　the　　spiritual　characteristics　of　individuals　and　nations；　his　outward　　appearance　was　in　Italy　the　subject　of　an　entirely　different　interest　　from　that　shown　in　it　by　northern　peoples。
  Of　the　position　held　by　the　great　Italian　physicians　with　respect　to　　the　progress　of　physiology；　we　cannot　venture　to　speak；　and　the　　artistic　study　of　the　human　figure　belongs；　not　to　a　work　like　the　　present；　but　to　the　history　of　art。　But　something　must　here　be　said　of　　that　universal　education　of　the　eye；　which　rendered　the　judgement　of　　the　Italians　as　to　bodily　beauty　or　ugliness　perfect　and　final。
  On　reading　the　Italian　authors　of　that　period　attentively；　we　are　　astounded　at　the　keenness　and　accuracy　with　which　outward　features　are　　seized；　and　at　the　completeness　with　which　personal　appearance　in　　general　is　described。　Even　today　the　Italians；　and　especially　the　　Romans；　have　the　art　of　sketching　a　man's　picture　in　a　couple　of　words。　　This　rapid　apprehension　of　what　is　characteristic　is　an　essential　　condition　for　detecting　and　representing　the　beautiful。　In　poetry；　it　　is　true；　circumstantial　description　may　be　a　fault；　not　a　merit；　since　　a　single　feature；　suggested　by　deep　passion　or　insight；　will　often　　awaken　in　the　reader　a　far　more　powerful　impression　of　the　figure　　described。　Dante　gives　us　nowhere　a　more　splendid　idea　of　his　Beatrice　　than　where　he　only　describes　the　influence　which　goes　forth　from　her　　upon　all　around。　But　here　we　have　not　to　treat　particularly　of　poetry；　　which　follows　its　own　laws　and　pursues　its　own　ends；　but　rather　of　the　　general　capacity　to　paint　in　words　real　or　imaginary　forms。
  In　this　Boccaccio　is　a　masternot　in　the　'Decameron；'　where　the　　character　of　the　tales　forbids　lengthy　description；　but　in　the　　romances；　where　he　is　free　to　take　his　time。　In　his　'Ameto'　he　　describes　a　blonde　and　a　brunette　much　as　an　artist　a　hundred　years　　later　would　have　painted　themfor　here；　too；　culture　long　precedes　　art。　In　the　account　of　the　brunetteor；　strictly　speaking；　of　the　less　　blonde　of　the　twothere　are　touches　which　deserve　to　be　called　　classical。　In　the　words　'la　spaziosa　testa　e　distesa'　lies　the　feeling　　for　grander　forms；　which　go　beyond　a　graceful　prettiness；　the　eyebrows　　with　him　no　longer　resemble　two　bows；　as　in　the　Byzantine　ideal；　but　a　　single　wavy　line；　the　nose　seems　to　have　been　meant　to　be　aquiline；　the　　broad；　full　breast；　the　arms　of　moderate　length；　the　effect　of　the　　beautiful　hand；　as　it　lies　on　the　purple　mantleall　this　foretells　the　　sense　of　beauty　of　a　coming　time；　and　unconsciously　approaches　to　that　　of　classical　antiquity。　In　other　descriptions　Boccaccio　mentions　a　flat　　（not　medievally　rounded）　brow；　a　long；　earnest；　brown　eye；　and　round；　　not　hollowed　neck；　as　well　asin　a　very　modern　tonethe　'little　feet'　　and　the　'two　roguish　eyes'　of　a　black…haired　nymph。
  Whether　the　fifteenth　century　has　left　any　written　account　of　its　ideal　　of　beauty；　I　am　not　able　to　say。　The　works　of　the　painters　and　　sculptors　do　not　render　such　an　account　as　unnecessary　as　might　appear　　at　first　sight；　since　possibly；　as　opposed　to　their　realism；　a　more　　ideal　type　might　have　been　favored　and　preserved　by　the　writers。　In　the　　sixteenth　century　Firenzuola　came　forward　with　his　remarkable　work　on　　female　beauty。　We　must　clearly　distinguish　in　it　what　he　had　learned　　from　old　authors　or　from　artists；　such　as　the　fixing　of　proportions　　according　to　the　length　of　the　head；　and　certain　abstract　conceptions。　　What　remains　is　his　own　genuine　observation；　illustrated　with　examples　　of　women　and　girls　from　Prato。　As　his　little　work　is　a　kind　of　lecture；　　delivered　before　the　women　of　this　citythat　is　to　say；　before　very　　severe　criticshe　must　have　kept　pretty　closely　to　the　truth。　His　　principle　is　avowedly　that　of　Zeuxis　and　of　Lucianto　piece　together　　an　ideal　beauty　out　of　a　number　of　beautiful　parts。　He　defines　the　　shades　of　color　which　occur　in　the　hair　and　skin；　and　gives　to　the　　'biondo'　the　preference；　as　the　most　beautiful　color　for　the　hair；　　understanding　by　it　a　soft　yellow；　inclining　to　brown。　He　requires　that　　the　hair　should　be　thick；　long；　and　locky；　the　forehead　serene；　and　　twice　as　broad　as　high；　the　skin　bright　and　clear　（candida）；　but　not　of　　a　dead　white　（bianchezza）；　the　eyebrows　dark；　silky；　most　strongly　　marked　in　the　middle；　and　shading　off　towards　the　ears　and　the　nose；　　the　white　of　the　eye　faintly　touched　with　blue；　the　iris　not　actually　　black；　though　all　the　poets　praise　'occhi　neri'　as　a　gift　of　Venus；　　despite　that　even　goddesses　were　known　for　their　eyes　of　heavenly　blue；　　and　that　soft；　joyous；　brown　eyes　were　admired　by　everybody。　The　eye　　itself　should　be　large　and　full　and　brought　well　forward；　the　lids　　white；　and　marked　with　almost　invisible　tiny　red　veins；　the　lashes　　neither　too　long；　nor　too　thick；　nor　too　dark。　The　hollow　round　the　eye　　should　have　the　same　color　as　the　cheek。　The　ear；　neither　too　large　nor　　too　small；　firmly　and　neatly　fitted　on；　should　show　a　stronger　color　in　　the　winding　than　in　the　even　parts；　with　an　edge　of　the　transparent　　ruddiness　of　the　pomegranate。　The　temples　must　be　white　and　even；　and　　for　the　most　perfect　beauty　ought　not　to　be　too　narrow。　The　red　should　　grow　deeper　as　the　cheek　gets　rounder。　The　nose；　which　chiefly　　determines　the　value　of　the　profile；　must　recede　gently　and　uniformly　　in　the　direction　of　the　eyes；　where　the　cartilage　cease