after　old　authorsparticularly　Suetoniuswhich　　contain　admirable　features。　Indeed　these　and　other　profane　'vitae'　came　　in　time　to　form　a　continuous　counterpart　to　the　sacred　legends。　Yet　　neither　Einhard　nor　Wippo　nor　Radevicus　can　be　named　by　the　side　of　　Joinville's　picture　of　St。　Louis；　which　certainly　stands　almost　alone　　as　the　first　complete　spiritual　portrait　of　a　modern　European　nature。　　Characters　like　St。　Louis　are　rare　at　all　times；　and　his　was　favored　by　　the　rare　good　fortune　that　a　sincere　and　naive　observer　caught　the　　spirit　of　all　the　events　and　actions　of　his　life；　and　represented　it　　admirably。　From　what　scanty　sources　are　we　left　to　guess　at　the　inward　　nature　of　Frederick　II　or　of　Philip　the　Fair。　Much　of　what；　till　the　　close　of　the　Middle　Ages；　passed　for　biography；　is　properly　speaking　　nothing　but　contemporary　narrative；　written　without　any　sense　of　what　　is　individual　in　the　subject　of　the　memoir。
  Among　the　Italians；　on　the　contrary；　the　search　for　the　characteristic　　features　of　remarkable　men　was　a　prevailing　tendency；　and　this　it　is　　which　separates　them　from　the　other　western　peoples；　among　whom　the　　same　thing　happens　but　seldom；　and　in　exceptional　cases。　This　keen　eye　　for　individuality　belongs　only　to　those　who　have　emerged　from　the　　halfconscious　life　of　the　race　and　become　themselves　individuals。
  Under　the　influence　of　the　prevailing　conception　of　fame　an　art　of　　comparative　biography　arose　which　no　longer　found　it　necessary；　like　　Anastasius；　Agnellus；　and　their　successors；　or　like　the　biographers　of　　the　Venetian　doges；　to　adhere　to　a　dynastic　or　ecclesiastical　　succession。　It　felt　itself　free　to　describe　a　man　if　and　because　he　was　　remarkable。　It　took　as　models　。Suetonius；　Nepos　（the　'viri　illustres'）；　　and　Plutarch；…so　far　as　he　was　known　and　translated；　for　sketches　of　　literary　history；　the　lives　of　the　grammarians；　rhetoricians；　and　　poets；　known　to　us　as　the　'Appendices'　to　Suetonius；　seem　to　have　　served　as　patterns；　as　well　as　the　widely…read　life　of　Virgil　by　　Donatus。
  It　has　already　been　mentioned　that　biographical　collections　lives　of　　famous　men　and　famous　womenbegan　to　appear　in　the　fourteenth　century。　　Where　they　do　not　describe　contemporaries；　they　are　naturally　dependent　　on　earlier　narratives。　The　first　great　original　effort　is　the　life　of　　Dante　by　Boccaccio。　Lightly　and　rhetorically　written；　and　full；　as　it　　is；　of　arbitrary　fancies；　this　work　nevertheless　gives　us　a　lively　　sense　of　the　extraordinary　features　in　Dante's　nature。　Then　follow；　at　　the　end　of　the　fourteenth　century；　the　'vite'　of　illustrious　　Florentines；　by　Filippo　Villani。　They　are　men　of　every　calling：　poets；　　jurists；　physicians；　scholars；　artists；　statesmen；　and　soldiers；　some　　of　them　then　still　living。　Florence　is　here　treated　like　a　gifted　　family；　in　which　all　the　members　are　noticed　in　whom　the　spirit　of　the　　house　expresses　itself　vigorously。　The　descriptions　are　brief；　but　show　　a　remarkable　eye　for　what　is　characteristic；　and　are　noteworthy　for　　including　the　inward　and　outward　physiognomy　in　the　same　sketch。　From　　that　time　forward；　the　Tuscans　never　ceased　to　consider　the　description　　of　man　as　lying　within　their　special　competence；　and　to　them　we　owe　the　　most　valuable　portraits　of　the　Italians　of　the　fifteenth　and　sixteenth　　centuries。　Giovanni　Cavalcanti；　in　the　appendices　to　his　Florentine　　history；　written　before　the　year　1450；　collects　instances　of　civil　　virtue　and　abnegation；　of　political　discernment　and　of　military　valor；　　all　shown　by　Florentines。　Pius　II　gives　in　his　'Commentaries'　valuable　　portraits　of　famous　contemporaries；　and　not　long　ago　a　separate　work　of　　his　earlier　years；　which　seems　preparatory　to　these　portraits；　but　　which　has　colors　and　features　that　are　very　singular；　was　reprinted。　To　　Jacopo　of　Volterra　we　owe　piquant　sketches　of　members　of　the　Curia　in　　the　time　of　Sixtus　IV。　Vespasiano　Fiorentino　has　often　been　referred　to　　already；　and　as　a　historical　authority　a　high　place　must　be　assigned　to　　him；　but　his　gift　as　a　painter　of　character　is　not　to　be　compared　with　　that　of　Machiavelli；　Niccolo　Valori；　Guicciardini；　Varchi；　Francesco　　Vettori；　and　others；　by　whom　European　historical　literature　has　　probably　been　as　much　influenced　in　this　direction　as　by　the　ancients。　　It　must　not　be　forgotten　that　some　of　these　authors　soon　found　their　　way　into　northern　countries　by　means　of　Latin　translations。　And　without　　Giorgio　Vasari　of　Arezzo　and　his　all…important　work；　we　should　perhaps　　to　this　day　have　no　history　of　Northern　art；　or　of　the　art　of　modern　　Europe；　at　all。
  Among　the　biographers　of　North　Italy　in　the　fifteenth　century；　　Bartolommeo　Fazio　of　Spezia　holds　a　high　rank。　Platina；　born　in　the　　territory　of　Cremona；　gives　us；　in　his　'Life　of　Paul　II；'　examples　of　　biographical　caricatures。　The　description　of　the　last　Visconti；　written　　by　Piercandido　Decembrioan　enlarged　imitation　of　Suetoniusis　of　　special　importance。　Sismondi　regrets　that　so　much　trouble　has　been　　spent　on　so　unworthy　an　object；　but　the　author　would　hardly　have　been　　equal　to　deal　with　a　greater　man；　while　he　was　thoroughly　competent　to　　describe　the　mixed　nature　of　Filippo　Maria；　and　in　and　through　it　to　　represent　with　accuracy　the　conditions；　the　forms；　and　the　consequences　　of　this　particular　kind　of　despotism。　The　picture　of　the　fifteenth　　century　would　be　incomplete　without　this　unique　biography；　which　is　　characteristic　down　to　its　minutest　details。　Milan　afterwards　　possessed；　in　the　historian　Corio；　an　excellent　portrait…painter；　and　　after　him　came　Paolo　Giovio　of　Como；　whose　larger　biographies　and　　shorter　'Elogia'　have　achieved　a　world…wide　reputation；　and　become　　models　for　subsequent　writers　in　all　countries。　It　is　easy　to　prove　by　　a　hundred　passages　how　superficial　and　even　dishonest　he　was；　nor　from　　a　man　like　him　can　any　high　and　serious　purpose　be　expected。　But　the　　breath　of　the　age　moves　in　his　pages；　and　his　Leo；　his　Alfonso；　his　　Pompeo　Colonna；　live　and　act　before　us　with　such　perfect　truth　and　　reality；　that　we　seem　admitted　to　the　deepest　recesses　of　their　nature。
  Among　Neapolitan　writers；　Tristano　Caracciolo；　so　far　as　we　are　able　to　　judge；　holds　indisputably　the　first　place　in　this　respect；　although　his　　purpose　was　not　strictly　biographical。　In　the　figures　which　he　brings　　before　us；　guilt　and　destiny　are　wondrously　mingled。　He　is　a　kind　of　　unconscious　tragedian。　That　genuine　tragedy　which　then　found　no　place　　on　the　stage；　'swept　by'　in　the　palace；　the　street；　and　the　public　　square。　The　'Words　and　Deeds　of　Alfonso　the　Great；'　written　by　Antonio　　Panormita　during　the　lifetime　of　the　king；　are　remarkable　as　one　of　the　　first　of　such　collections　of　anecdotes　and　of　wise　and　witty　sayings。
  The　rest　of　Europe　followed　the　example　of　Italy　in　this　respect　but　　slowly；　although　great　political　and　religious　movements　had　broken　so　　many　bonds；　and　had　awakened　so　many　thousands　to　new　spiritual　life。　　Italians；　whether　scholars　or　diplomatists；　still　remained；　on　the　　whole；　the　best　source　of　information　for　the　characters　of　the　leading　　men　all　over　Europe。　It　is　well　known　how　speedily　and　unanimously　in　　recent　times　the　reports　of　the　Venetian　embassies　in　the　sixteenth　and　　seventeenth　centuries　have　been　recognized　as　authorities　of　the　first　　order　for　personal　description。　Even　autobiography　takes　here　and　there　　in　Italy　a　bold　and　vigorous　flight；　and　puts　before　us；　together　with　　the　most　varied　incidents　of　external　life；　striking　revelations　of　the　　inner　man。　Among　other　nations；　even　in　Germany　at　the　time　of　the　　Reformation；　it　deals　only　with　outward　experiences；　and　leaves　us　to　　guess　at　the　spirit　within　from　the　style　of　the　narrative。　It　seems　as　　though　Dante's　'Vita　Nuova；'　with　the　inexorable　truthfulness　which　　runs　through　it；　had　shown　his　people　the　way。
  The　beginnings　of　autobiography　are　to　be　traced　in　the　family　　histories　of　the　fourteenth　and　fifteenth　centuries；　which　are　said　to　　be　not　uncommon　as　manuscripts　in　the　Florentine　librariesunaffected　　narratives　written　for　the　sake　of　the　individual　or　of　his　family；　　like　that　of　Buonaccorso　Pitti。
  A　profound　self…analysis　is　not　to　be　looked　for　in　the　'Commentaries'　　of　Pius　II。　What　we　here　learn　of　him　as　a　man　seems　at　first　sight　to　　be　chiefly　confined　to　the　account　which　he　gives　of　the　various　steps　　in　his　career。　But　further　reflection　will　lead　us　to　a　different　　conclusion　with　regard　to　this　remarkable　book。　There　are　men　who　are　　by　nature　mirrors　of　what　surrounds　them。　It　would　be　irrelevant　to　ask　　incessantly　after　their　convictions；　their　spiritual　struggles；　their　　inmost　victories　and　achievements。　Aeneas　Sylvius　lived　wholly　in　the　　interest　which　lay　near；　without　troubling　himself　about　the　problems　　and　contradictions　of　life。　His　Catholic　orthodoxy　gave　him　all　the　　help　of　this　kind　which　he　needed。　And　at　all　events；　after　taking　part　　in　every　intellectual　movement　which　interested　his　age；　and　notably　　furthering　some　of　them；　he　still　at　the　close　of　his　earthly　course　　retained　character　enough　to　preach　a　crusade　against　the　Turks；　and　to　　die　of　grief　when　it　came　to　nothing。
  Nor　is　the　autobiography　of　Benvenuto　Cellini；　any　m