s　as　earnestly　as　Pulci；　　namely；　the　lively　and　exact　description　of　all　that　goes　forward。　　Pulci　recited　his　poem；　as　one　book　after　another　was　finished；　before　　the　society　of　Lorenzo　il　Magnifico；　and　in　the　same　way　Boiardo　　recited　his　at　the　court　of　Ercole　of　Ferrara。　It　may　be　easily　　imagined　what　sort　of　excellence　such　an　audience　demanded；　and　how　　little　thanks　a　profound　exposition　of　character　would　have　earned　for　　the　poet。　Under　these　circumstances　the　poems　naturally　formed　no　　complete　whole；　and　might　just　as　well　be　half　or　twice　as　long　as　they　　now　are。　Their　composition　is　not　that　of　a　great　historical　picture；　　but　rather　that　of　a　frieze；　or　of　some　rich　festoon　entwined　among　　groups　of　picturesque　figures。　And　precisely　as　in　the　figures　or　　tendrils　of　a　frieze　we　do　not　look　for　minuteness　of　execution　in　the　　individual　forms；　or　for　distant　perspectives　and　different　planes；　so　　we　must　as　little　expect　anything　of　the　kind　from　these　poems。
  The　varied　richness　of　invention　which　continually　astonishes　us；　most　　of　all　in　the　case　of　Boiardo；　turns　to　ridicule　all　our　school　　definitions　as　to　the　essence　of　epic　poetry。　For　that　age；　this　form　　of　literature　was　the　most　agreeable　diversion　from　archaeological　　studies；　and；　indeed；　the　only　possible　means　of　re…establishing　an　　independent　class　of　narrative　poetry。　For　the　versification　of　ancient　　history　could　only　lead　to　the　false　tracks　which　were　trodden　by　　Petrarch　in　his　'Africa；'　written　in　Latin　hexameters；　and　a　hundred　　and　fifty　years　later　by　Trissino　in　his　'Italy　delivered　from　the　　Goths；'　composed　in　'versi　sciolti'a　never…ending　poem　of　faultless　　language　and　versification；　which　only　makes　us　doubt　whether　this　　unlucky　alliance　has　been　more　disastrous　to　history　or　to　poetry。
  And　whither　did　the　example　of　Dante　beguile　those　who　imitated　him？　　The　visionary　'Trionfi'　of　Petrarch　were　the　last　of　the　works　written　　under　this　influence　which　satisfy　our　taste。　The　'Amorosa　Visione'　of　　Boccaccio　is　at　bottom　no　more　than　an　enumeration　of　historical　or　　fabulous　characters；　arranged　under　allegorical　categories。　Others　　preface　what　they　have　to　tell　with　a　baroque　imitation　of　Dante's　　first　canto；　and　provide　themselves　with　some　allegorical　comparison；　　to　take　the　place　of　Virgil。　Uberti；　for　example；　chose　Solinus　for　his　　geographical　poemthe　'Dittamondo'and　Giovanni　Santi；　Plutarch　for　　his　encomium　on　Federigo　of　Urbino。　The　only　salvation　of　the　time　from　　these　false　tendencies　lay　in　the　new　epic　poetry　which　was　represented　　by　Pulci　and　Boiardo。　The　admiration　and　curiosity　with　which　it　was　　received；　and　the　like　of　which　will　perhaps　never　fall　again　to　the　　lot　of　epic　poetry　to　the　end　of　time；　is　a　brilliant　proof　of　how　　great　was　the　need　of　it。　It　is　idle　to　ask　whether　that　epic　ideal　　which　our　own　day　has　formed　from　Homer　and　the　'Nibelungenlied'　is　or　　is　not　realized　in　these　works；　an　ideal　of　their　own　age　certainly　　was。　By　their　endless　descriptions　of　combats；　which　to　us　are　the　most　　fatiguing　part　of　these　poems；　they　satisfied；　as　we　have　already　said；　　a　practical　interest　of　which　it　is　hard　for　us　to　form　a　just　　conceptionas　hard；　indeed；　as　of　the　esteem　in　which　a　lively　and　　faithful　reflection　of　the　passing　moment　was　then　held。
  Nor　can　a　more　inappropriate　test　be　applied　to　Ariosto　than　the　degree　　in　which　his　'Orlando　Furioso'　serves　for　the　representation　of　　character。　Characters；　indeed；　there　are；　and　drawn　with　an　　affectionate　care；　but　the　poem　does　not　depend　on　these　for　its　　effect；　and　would　lose；　rather　than　gain；　if　more　stress　were　laid　upon　　them。　But　the　demand　for　them　is　part　of　a　wider　and　more　general　　desire　which　Ariosto　fails　to　satisfy　as　our　day　would　wish　it　　satisfied。　From　a　poet　of　such　fame　and　such　mighty　gifts　we　would　　gladly　receive　something　better　than　the　adventures　of　Orlando。　From　　him　we　might　have　hoped　for　a　work　expressing　the　deepest　conflicts　of　　the　human　soul；　the　highest　thoughts　of　his　time　on　human　and　divine　　thingsin　a　word；　one　of　those　supreme　syntheses　like　the　'Divine　　Comedy'　or　'Faust。'　Instead　of　which　he　goes　to　work　like　the　visual　　artists　of　his　own　day；　not　caring　for　originality　in　our　sense　of　the　　word；　simply　reproducing　a　familiar　circle　of　figures；　and　even；　when　　it　suits　his　purpose；　making　use　of　the　details　left　him　by　his　　predecessors。　The　excellence　which；　in　spite　of　all　this；　can　　nevertheless　be　attained；　will　be　the　more　incomprehensible　to　people　　born　without　the　artistic　sense；　the　more　learned　and　intelligent　in　　other　respects　they　are。　The　artistic　aim　of　Ariosto　is　brilliant；　　living　action；　which　he　distributes　equally　through　the　whole　of　his　　great　poem。　For　this　end　he　needs　to　be　excused；　not　only　from　all　　deeper　expression　of　character；　but　also　from　maintaining　any　strict　　connection　in　his　narrative。　He　must　be　allowed　to　take　up　lost　and　　forgotten　threads　when　and　where　he　pleases；　his　heroes　must　come　and　　go；　not　because　their　character；　but　because　the　story　requires　it。　Yet　　in　this　apparently　irrational　and　arbitrary　style　of　composition　he　　displays　a　harmonious　beauty；　never　losing　himself　in　description；　but　　giving　only　such　a　sketch　of　scenes　and　persons　as　does　not　hinder　the　　flowing　movement　of　the　narrative。　Still　less　does　he　lose　himself　in　　conversation　and　monologue；　but　maintains　the　lofty　privilege　of　the　　true　epos；　by　transforming　all　into　living　narrative。　His　pathos　does　　not　lie　in　the　words；　not　even　in　the　famous　twentythird　and　following　　cantos；　where　Roland's　madness　is　described。　That　the　love…stories　in　　the　heroic　poem　are　without　all　lyrical　tenderness；　must　be　reckoned　a　　merit；　though　from　a　moral　point　of　view　they　cannot　always　be　　approved。　Yet　at　times　they　are　of　such　truth　and　reality；　　notwithstanding　all　；　and　romance　which　surrounds　them；　that　we　might　　think　them　personal　affairs　of　the　poet　himself。　In　the　full　　consciousness　of　his　own　genius；　he　does　not　scruple　to　interweave　t　he　　events　of　his　own　day　into　the　poem；　and　to　celebrate　the　fame　of　the　　house　of　Este　in　visions　and　prophecies。　The　wonderful　stream　of　his　　octaves　bears　it　all　forward　in　even　and　dignified　movement。
  With　Teofilo　Folengo；　or；　as　he　here　calls　himself；　Limerno　Pitocco；　　the　parody　of　the　whole　system　of　chivalry　attained　the　end　it　had　so　　long　desired。　But　here　comedy；　with　its　realism；　demanded　of　necessity　　a　stricter　delineation　of　character。　Exposed　to　all　the　rough　usage　of　　the　half…savage　street…lads　in　a　Roman　country　town；　Sutri；　the　little　　Orlando　grows　up　before　our　eyes　into　the　hero；　the　priest…hater；　and　　the　disputant。　The　conventional　world　which　had　been　recognized　since　　the　time　of　Pulci　and　had　served　as　a　framework　for　the　epos；　here　　falls　to　pieces。　The　origin　and　position　of　the　paladins　is　openly　　ridiculed；　as　in　the　tournament　of　donkeys　in　the　second　book；　where　　the　knights　appear　with　the　most　ludicrous　armament。　The　poet　utters　　his　ironical　regrets　over　the　inexplicable　faithlessness　which　seems　　implanted　in　the　house　of　Gano　of　Mainz；　over　the　toilsome　acquisition　　of　the　sword　Durindana；　and　so　forth。　Tradition；　in　fact；　serves　him　　only　as　a　substratum　for　episodes；　ludicrous　fancies；　allusions　to　　events　of　the　time　（among　which　some；　like　the　close　of　cap。　vi。　are　　exceedingly　fine）；　and　indecent　jokes。　Mixed　with　all　this；　a　certain　　derision　of　Ariosto　is　unmistakable；　and　it　was　fortunate　for　the　'Or…　　lando　Furioso'　that　the　'Orlandino；'　with　its　Lutheran　heresies；　was　　soon　put　out　of　the　way　by　the　Inquisition。　The　parody　is　evident　when　　（cap。　vi；　28）　the　house　of　Gonzaga　is　deduced　from　the　paladin　Guidone；　　since　the　Colonna　claimed　Orlando；　the　Orsini　Rinaldo；　and　the　house　of　　Esteaccording　to　Ariosto　Ruggiero　as　their　ancestors。　Perhaps　　Ferrante　Gonzaga；　the　patron　of　the　poet；　was　a　party　to　this　sarcasm　　on　the　house　of　Este。
  That　in　the　'Jerusalem　Delivered'　of　Torquato　Tasso　the　delineation　of　　character　is　one　of　the　chief　tasks　of　the　poet；　proves　only　how　far　　his　mode　of　thought　differed　from　that　prevalent　half　a　century　before。　　His　admirable　work　is　a　true　monument　of　the　Counter…reformation　which　　had　meanwhile　been　accomplished；　and　of　the　spirit　and　tendency　of　that　　movement。
  Biography　and　in　the　in　the　Middle　Ages　and　in　the　Renaissance
  Outside　the　sphere　of　poetry　also；　the　Italians　were　the　first　of　all　　European　nations　who　displayed　any　remarkable　power　and　inclination　　accurately　to　describe　man　as　shown　in　history；　according　to　his　inward　　and　outward　characteristics。
  It　is　true　that　in　the　Middle　Ages　considerable　attempts　were　made　in　　the　same　direction；　and　the　legends　of　the　Church；　as　a　kind　of　　standing　biographical　task；　must；　to　some　extent；　have　kept　alive　the　　interest　and　the　gift　for　such　descriptions。　In　the　annals　of　the　　monasteries　and　cathedrals；　many　of　the　churchmen；　such　as　Meinwerk　of　　Paderborn；　Godehard　of　Hildesheim；　and　others；　are　brought　vividly　　before　our　eyes；　and　descriptions　exist　of　several　of　the　German　　emperors；　modelled　after　old　authorsparticularly　Suetoniuswhich　　contain　admirable　features。　Indeed　these　and　other　pr