ictim　to　the　envy　　of　another　physician；　who　accused　him　before　the　Inquisition　of　heresy　　and　magic；　and　something　of　the　same　kind　may　have　happened　in　the　case　　of　his　Paduan　contemporary；　Giovannino　Sanguinacci；　who　was　known　as　an　　innovator　in　medical　practice。　He　escaped；　however；　with　banishment。　　Nor　must　it　be　forgotten　that　the　inquisitorial　power　of　the　Dominicans　　was　exercised　less　uniformly　in　Italy　than　in　the　North。　Tyrants　and　　free　cities　in　the　fourteenth　century　treated　the　clergy　at　times　with　　such　sovereign　contempt　that　very　different　matters　from　natural　　science　went　unpunished。　But　when；　with　the　fifteenth　century；　　antiquity　became　the　leading　power　in　Italy；　the　breach　it　made　in　the　　old　system　was　turned　to　account　by　every　branch　of　secular　science。　　Humanism；　nevertheless；　attracted　to　itself　the　best　strength　of　the　　nation；　and　thereby；　no　doubt；　did　injury　to　the　inductive　　investigation　of　nature。　Here　and　there　the　Inquisition　suddenly　　started　into　life；　and　punished　or　burned　physicians　as　blasphemers　or　　magicians。　In　such　cases　it　is　hard　to　discover　what　was　the　true　　motive　underlying　the　condemnation。　But　even　so；　Italy；　at　the　close　of　　the　fifteenth　century；　with　Paolo　Toscanelli；　Luca　Pacioli　and　Leonardo　　da　Vinci；　held　incomparably　the　highest　place　among　European　nations　in　　mathematics　and　the　natural　sciences；　and　the　learned　men　of　every　　country；　even　Regiomontanus　and　Copernicus；　confessed　themselves　its　　pupils。　This　glory　survived　the　Counter…reformation；　and　even　today　the　　Italians　would　occupy　the　first　place　in　this　respect　if　circumstances　　had　not　made　it　impossible　for　the　greatest　minds　to　devote　themselves　　to　tranquil　research。
  A　significant　proof　of　the　widespread　interest　in　natural　history　is　　found　in　the　zeal　which　showed　itself　at　an　early　period　for　the　　collection　and　comparative　study　of　plants　and　animals。　Italy　claims　to　　be　the　first　creator　of　botanical　gar　dens；　though　possibly　they　may　　have　served　a　chiefly　practical　end；　and　the　claim　to　priority　may　be　　itself　disputed。　It　is　of　far　greater　importance　that　princes　and　　wealthy　men；　in　laying　out　their　pleasure…gardens；　instinctively　made　a　　point　of　collecting　the　greatest　possible　number　of　different　plants　in　　all　their　species　and　varieties。　Thus　in　the　fifteenth　century　the　　noble　grounds　of　the　Medicean　Villa　Careggi　appear　from　the　　descriptions　we　have　of　them　to　have　been　almost　a　botanical　garden；　　with　countless　specimens　of　different　trees　and　shrubs。　Of　the　same　　kind　was　a　villa　of　the　Cardinal　Trivulzio；　at　the　beginning　of　the　　sixteenth　century；　in　the　Roman　Campagna　towards　Tivoli；　with　hedges　　made　up　of　various　species　of　roses；　with　trees　of　every　description　the　fruit…trees　especially　showing　an　astonishing　varietywith　twenty　　different　sorts　of　vines　and　a　large　kitchen…garden。　This　is　evidently　　something　very　different　from　the　score　or　two　of　familiar　medicinal　　plants　which　were　to　be　found　in　the　garden　of　any　castle　or　monastery　　in　Western　Europe。　Along　with　a　careful　cultivation　of　fruit　for　the　　purposes　of　the　table；　we　find　an　interest　in　the　plant　for　its　own　　sake；　on　account　of　the　pleasure　it　gives　to　the　eye。　We　learn　from　the　　history　of　art　at　how　late　a　period　this　passion　for　botanical　　collections　was　laid　aside；　and　gave　place　to　what　was　considered　the　　picturesque　style　of　landscape…gardening。
  The　collections；　too；　of　foreign　animals　not　only　gratified　curiosity；　　but　served　also　the　higher　purposes　of　observation。　The　facility　of　　transport　from　the　southern　and　eastern　harbors　of　the　Mediterranean；　　and　the　mildness　of　the　Italian　climate；　made　it　practicable　to　buy　the　　largest　animals　of　the　south；　or　to　accept　them　as　presents　from　the　　Sultans。　The　cities　and　princes　were　especially　anxious　to　keep　live　　lions　even　where　a　lion　was　not；　as　in　Florence；　the　emblem　of　the　　State。　The　lions'　den　was　generally　in　or　near　the　government　palace；　　as　in　Perugia　and　Florence；　in　Rome；　it　lay　on　the　slope　of　the　　Capitol。　The　beasts　sometimes　served　as　executioners　of　political　　judgements；　and　no　doubt；　apart　from　this；　they　kept　alive　a　certain　　terror　in　the　popular　mind。　Their　condition　was　also　held　to　be　ominous　　of　good　or　evil。　Their　fertility；　especially；　was　considered　a　sign　of　　public　prosperity；　and　no　less　a　man　than　Giovanni　Villani　thought　it　　worth　recording　that　he　was　present　at　the　delivery　of　a　lioness。　The　　cubs　were　often　given　to　allied　States　and　princes；　or　to　Condottieri　　as　a　reward　of　their　valor。　In　addition　to　the　lions；　the　Florentines　　began　very　early　to　keep　leopards；　for　which　a　special　keeper　was　　appointed。　Borso　of　Ferrara　used　to　set　his　lion　to　fight　with　bulls；　　bears；　and　wild　boars。
  By　the　end　of　the　fifteenth　century；　however；　true　menageries　　（serragli）；　now　reckoned　part　of　the　suitable　appointments　of　a　court；　　were　kept　by　many　of　the　princes。　'It　belongs　to　the　position　of　the　　great；'　says　Matarazzo；　'to　keep　horses；　dogs；　mules；　falcons；　and　　other　birds；　court…jesters；　singers；　and　foreign　animals。'　The　　menagerie　at　Naples；　in　the　time　of　Ferrante；　contained　even　a　giraffe　　and　a　zebra；　presented；　it　seems；　by　the　ruler　of　Baghdad。　Filippo　　Maria　Visconti　possessed　not　only　horses　which　cost　him　each　500　or　　1；000　pieces　of　gold；　and　valuable　English　dogs；　but　a　number　of　　leopards　brought　from　all　parts　of　the　East；　the　expense　of　his　hunting　　birds；　which　were　collected　from　the　countries　of　Northern　Europe；　　amounted　to　3；000　pieces　of　gold　a　month。　King　Emanuel　the　Great　of　　Portugal　knew　well　what　he　was　about　when　he　presented　Leo　X　with　an　　elephant　and　a　rhinoceros。　It　was　under　such　circumstances　that　the　　foundations　of　a　scientific　zoology　and　botany　were　laid。
  A　practical　fruit　of　these　zoological　studies　was　the　establishment　of　　studs；　of　which　the　Mantuan；　under　Francesco　Gonzaga；　was　esteemed　the　　first　in　Europe。　All　interest　in；　and　knowledge　of　the　different　breeds　　of　horses　is　as　old；　no　doubt；　as　riding　itself；　and　the　crossing　of　　the　European　with　the　Asiatic　must　have　been　common　from　the　time　of　　the　Crusades。　In　Italy；　a　special　inducement　to　perfect　the　breed　was　　offered　by　the　prizes　at　the　horse…races　held　in　every　considerable　　town　in　the　peninsula。　In　the　Mantuan　stables　were　found　the　in…　　fallible　winners　in　these　contests；　as　well　as　the　best　military　　chargers；　and　the　horses　best　suited　by　their　stately　appearance　for　　presents　to　great　people。　Gonzaga　kept　stallions　and　mares　from　Spain；　　Ireland；　Africa；　Thrace；　and　Cilicia；　and　for　the　sake　of　the　last　he　　cultivated　the　friendship　of　the　Sultans。　All　possible　experiments　were　　here　tried；　in　order　to　produce　the　most　perfect　animals。
  Even　human　menageries　were　not　wanting。　The　famous　Cardinal　Ippolito　　Medici；　bastard　of　Giuliano；　Duke　of　Nemours；　kept　at　his　strange　court　　a　troop　of　barbarians　who　talked　no　less　than　twenty　different　　languages；　and　who　were　all　of　them　perfect　specimens　of　their　races。　　Among　them　were　incomparable　_voltigeurs　_of　the　best　blood　of　the　　North　African　Moors；　Tartar　bowmen；　Negro　wrestlers；　Indian　divers；　and　　Turks；　who　generally　accompanied　the　Cardinal　on　his　hunting　　expeditions。　When　he　was　overtaken　by　an　early　death　（1535）；　this　　motley　band　carried　the　corpse　on　their　shoulders　from　Itri　to　Rome；　　and　mingled　with　the　general　mourning　for　the　open…handed　Cardinal　　their　medley　of　tongues　and　violent　gesticulations。
  These　scattered　notices　of　the　relations　of　the　Italians　to　natural　　science；　and　their　interest　in　the　wealth　and　variety　of　the　products　　of　nature；　are　only　fragments　of　a　great　subject。　No　one　is　more　　conscious　than　the　author　of　the　defects　in　his　knowledge　on　this　　point。　Of　the　multitude　of　special　works　in　which　the　subject　is　　adequately　treated；　even　the　names　are　but　imperfectly　known　to　him。
  Discovery　of　the　Beauty　of　Landscape
  But　outside　the　sphere　of　scientific　investigation；　there　is　another　　way　to　draw　near　to　nature。　The　Italians　are　the　first　among　modern　　peoples　by　whom　the　outward　world　was　seen　and　felt　as　something　　beautiful。
  The　power　to　do　so　is　always　the　result　of　a　long　and　complicated　　development；　and　its　origin　is　not　easily　detected；　since　a　dim　feeling　　of　this　kind　may　exist　long　before　it　shows　itself　in　poetry　and　　painting　and　thereby　becomes　conscious　of　itself。　Among　the　ancients；　　for　example；　art　and　poetry　had　gone　through　the　whole　circle　of　human　　interests；　before　they　turned　to　the　representation　of　nature；　and　even　　then　the　latter　filled　always　a　limited　and　subordinate　place。　And　yet；　　from　the　time　of　Homer　downwards；　the　powerful　impression　made　by　　nature　upon　man　is　shown　by　countless　verses　and　chance　expressions。　　The　Germanic　races；　which　founded　their　States　on　the　ruins　of　the　　Roman　Empire；　were　thoroughly　and　specially　fitted　to　understand　the　　spirit　of　natural　scenery；　and　though　Christianity　compelled　them　for　a　　while　to　see　in　the　springs　and　mountains；　in　the　lakes　and　woods；　　which　they　had　till　then　revered；　the　working　of　evil　demons；　yet　this　　transitional　conception　was　soon　outgrown。　By　the　year　1200；　at　the　　height　of　the　Middle　Ages；　a　genuine；　hearty　enjoymen