ns　be　adventurers　in　the　sense　which　the　　word　bore　among　the　Teutons。　After　they　were　once　at　home　in　all　the　　eastern　harbors　of　the　Mediterranean；　it　was　natural　that　the　most　　enterprising　among　them　should　be　led　to　join　that　vast　inter…　national　　movement　of　the　Mohammedans　which　there　found　its　outlet。　A　new　half　of　　the　world　lay；　as　it　were；　freshly　discovered　before　them。　Or；　like　　Polo　of　Venice；　they　were　caught　in　the　current　of　the　Mongolian　　peoples；　and　carried　on　to　the　steps　of　the　throne　of　the　Great　Khan。　　At　an　early　period；　we　find　Italians　sharing　in　the　discoveries　made　in　　the　Atlantic　Ocean；　it　was　the　Genoese　who；　in　the　thirteenth　century　　found　the　Canary　Islands。　In　the　same　year；　1291；　when　Ptolemais；　the　　last　remnant　of　the　Christian　East；　was　lost；　it　was　again　the　Genoese　　who　made　the　first　known　attempt　to　find　a　sea…passage　to　the　East　　Indies。　Columbus　himself　is　but　the　greatest　of　a　long　list　of　Italians　　who；　in　the　service　of　the　western　nations；　sailed　into　distant　seas。　　The　true　discoverer；　however；　is　not　the　man　who　first　chances　to　　stumble　upon　anything；　but　the　man　who　finds　what　he　has　sought。　Such　a　　one　alone　stands　in　a　link　with　the　thoughts　and　interests　of　his　　predecessors；　and　this　relationship　will　also　determine　the　account　he　　gives　of　his　search。　For　which　reason　the　Italians；　although　their　　claim　to　be　the　first　comers　on　this　or　that　shore　may　be　disputed；　　will　yet　retain　their　title　to　be　pre…eminently　the　nation　of　　discoverers　for　the　whole　latter　part　of　the　Middle　Ages。　The　fuller　　proof　of　this　assertion　belongs　to　the　special　history　of　discoveries。　　Yet　ever　and　again　we　turn　with　admiration　to　the　august　figure　of　the　　great　Genoese；　by　whom　a　new　continent　beyond　the　ocean　was　demanded；　　sought　and　found；　and　who　was　the　first　to　be　able　to　say：　'il　mondo　e　　poco'the　world　is　not　so　large　as　men　have　thought。　At　the　time　when　　Spain　gave　Alexander　VI　to　the　Italians；　Italy　gave　Columbus　to　the　　Spaniards。　Only　a　few　weeks　before　the　death　of　that　pope　Columbus　　wrote　from　Jamaica　his　noble　letter　（July　7；　1503）　to　the　thankless　　Catholic　kings；　which　the　ages　to　come　can　never　read　without　profound　　emotion。　In　a　codicil　to　his　will；　dated　Valladolid；　May　4；　I　506；　he　　bequeathed　to　'his　beloved　home；　the　Republic　of　Genoa；　the　prayer…book　　which　Pope　Alexander　had　given　him；　and　which　in　prison；　in　conflict；　　and　in　every　kind　of　adversity；　had　been　to　him　the　greatest　of　　comforts。'　It　seems　as　if　these　words　cast　upon　the　abhorred　name　of　　Borgia　one　last　gleam　of　grace　and　mercy。
  The　development　of　geographical　and　allied　sciences　among　the　Italians　　must；　like　the　history　of　their　voyages；　be　touched　upon　but　very　　briefly。　A　superficial　comparison　of　their　achievements　with　those　of　　other　nations　shows　an　early　and　striking　superiority　on　their　part。　　Where；　in　the　middle　of　the　fifteenth　century；　could　be　found；　anywhere　　but　in　Italy；　such　a　union　of　geographical；　statistical；　and　historical　　knowledge　as　was　found　in　Aeneas　Sylvius？　Not　only　in　his　great　　geographical　work；　but　in　his　letters　and　commentaries；　he　describes　　with　equal　mastery　landscapes；　cities；　manners；　industries　and　　products；　political　conditions　and　constitutions；　wherever　he　can　use　　his　own　observation　or　the　evidence　of　eye…witnesses。　What　he　takes　　from　books　is　naturally　of　less　moment。　Even　the　short　sketch　of　that　　valley　in　the　Tyrolese　Alps　where　Frederick　III　had　given　him　a　　benefice；　and　still　more　his　description　of　Scotland；　leaves　untouched　　none　of　the　relations　of　human　life；　and　displays　a　power　and　method　of　　unbiased　observation　and　comparison　impossible　in　any　but　a　countryman　　of　Columbus；　trained　in　the　school　of　the　ancients。　Thousands　saw　and；　　in　part；　knew　what　he　did；　but　they　felt　no　impulse　to　draw　a　picture　　of　it；　and　were　unconscious　that　the　world　desired　such　pictures。
  In　geography；　as　in　other　matters；　it　is　vain　to　attempt　to　distinguish　　how　much　is　to　be　attributed　to　the　study　of　the　ancients；　and　how　much　　to　the　special　genius　of　the　Italians。　They　saw　and　treated　the　things　　of　this　world　from　an　objective　point　of　view；　even　before　they　were　　familiar　with　ancient　literature；　partly　because　they　were　themselves　a　　half…ancient　people；　and　partly　because　their　political　circumstances　　predisposed　them　to　it；　but　they　would　not　so　rapidly　have　attained　to　　such　perfection　had　not　the　old　geographers　shown　them　the　way。　The　　influence　of　the　existing　Italian　geographies　on　the　spirit　and　　tendencies　of　the　travellers　and　discoverers　was　also　inestimable。　Even　　the　simple　'dilettante'　of　a　science　if　in　the　present　case　we　should　　assign　to　Aeneas　Sylvius　so　low　a　rankcan　diffuse　just　that　sort　of　　general　interest　in　the　subject　which　prepares　for　new　pioneers　the　　indispensable　favourable　predisposition　in　the　public　mind。　True　　discoverers　in　any　science　know　well　what　they　owe　to　such　meditation。
  The　Natural　Sciences　in　Italy
  For　the　position　of　the　Italians　in　the　sphere　of　the　natural　sciences；　　we　must　refer　the　reader　to　the　special　treatises　on　the　subject；　of　　which　the　only　one　with　which　we　are　familiar　is　the　superficial　and　　depreciatory　work　of　Libri。　The　dispute　as　to　the　priority　of　　particular　discoveries　concerns　us　all　the　less；　since　we　hold　that；　at　　any　time；　and　among　any　civilized　people；　a　man　may　appear　who；　　starting　with　very　scanty　preparation；　is　driven　by　an　irresistible　　impulse　into　the　path　of　scientific　investigation；　and　through　his　　native　gifts　achieves　the　most　astonishing　success。　Such　men　were　　Gerbert　of　Rheims　and　Roger　Bacon。　That　they　were　masters　of　the　whole　　knowledge　of　the　age　in　their　several　departments　was　a　natural　　consequence　of　the　spirit　in　which　they　worked。　When　once　the　veil　of　　illusion　was　torn　asunder；　when　once　the　dread　of　nature　and　the　　slavery　to　books　and　tradition　were　overcome；　countless　problems　lay　　before　them　for　solution。　It　is　another　matter　when　a　whole　people　　takes　a　natural　delight　in　the　study　and　investigation　of　nature；　at　a　　time　when　other　nations　are　indifferent；　that　is　to　say；　when　the　　discoverer　is　not　threatened　or　wholly　ignored；　but　can　count　on　the　　friendly　support　of　congenial　spirits。　That　this　was　the　case　in　Italy　　is　unquestionable。　The　Italian　students　of　nature　trace　with　pride　in　　the　'Divine　Comedy'　the　hints　and　proofs　of　Dante's　scientific　in…　　terest　in　nature。　On　his　claim　to　priority　in　this　or　that　discovery　or　　reference；　we　must　leave　the　men　of　science　to　decide；　but　every　layman　　must　be　struck　by　the　wealth　of　his　observations　on　the　external　world；　　shown　merely　in　his　picture　and　comparisons。　He；　more　than　any　other　　modern　poet；　takes　them　from　reality；　whether　in　nature　or　human　life；　　and　uses　them　never　as　mere　ornament；　but　in　order　to　give　the　reader　　the　fullest　and　most　adequate　sense　of　his　meaning。　It　is　in　astronomy　　that　he　appears　chiefly　as　a　scientific　specialist；　though　it　must　not　　be　forgotten　that　many　astronomical　allusions　in　his　great　poem；　which　　now　appear　to　us　learned；　must　then　have　been　intelligible　to　the　　general　reader。　Dante；　learning　apart；　appeals　to　a　popular　knowledge　　of　the　heavens；　which　the　Italians　of　his　day；　from　the　mere　fact　that　　they　were　a　nautical　people；　had　in　common　with　the　ancients。　This　　knowledge　of　the　rising　and　setting　of　the　constellations　has　been　　rendered　superfluous　to　the　modern　world　by　calendars　and　clocks；　and　　with　it　has　gone　whatever　interest　in　astronomy　the　people　may　once　　have　had。　Nowadays；　with　our　schools　and　handbooks；　every　child　knows　what　Dante　did　not　knowthat　the　earth　moves　round　the　sun；　but　the　　interest　once　taken　in　the　subject　itself　has　given　place；　except　in　　the　case　of　astronomical　specialists；　to　the　most　absolute　　indifference。
  The　pseudo…science　which　dealt　with　the　stars　proves　nothing　against　　the　inductive　spirit　of　the　Italians　of　that　day。　That　spirit　was　but　　crossed；　and　at　times　overcome；　by　the　passionate　desire　to　penetrate　　the　future。　We　shall　recur　to　the　subject　of　astrology　when　we　come　to　　speak　of　the　moral　and　religious　character　of　the　people。
  The　Church　treated　this　and　other　pseudo…sciences　nearly　always　with　　toleration；　and　showed　itself　actually　hostile　even　to　genuine　science　　only　when　a　charge　of　heresy　together　with　necromancy　was　also　in　　questionwhich　certainly　was　often　the　case。　A　point　which　it　would　be　　interesting　to　decide　is　this：　whether　and　in　what　cases　the　Dominican　　（and　also　the　Franciscan）　Inquisitors　in　Italy　were　conscious　of　the　　falsehood　of　the　charges；　and　yet　condemned　the　accused；　either　to　　oblige　some　enemy　of　the　prisoner　or　from　hatred　to　natural　science；　　and　particularly　to　experiments。　The　latter　doubtless　occurred；　but　it　　is　not　easy　to　prove　the　fact。　What　helped　to　cause　such　persecutions　　in　the　North；　namely；　the　opposition　made　to　the　innovators　by　the　　upholders　of　the　received　official；　scholastic　system　of　nature；　was　of　　little　or　no　weight　in　Italy。　Pietro　of　Abano；　at　the　beginning　of　the　　fourteenth　century；　is　well　known　to　have　fallen　a　victim　to　the　envy　　of　another　physician；　who　accused　him　before　the　Inquisition　of　heresy　　and　magic