life　travelled；　now　through　this　country；　now　　through　that；　without　ever　mounting　a　horse；　who　never　had　a　penny　of　　his　own；　rejected　all　honours　and　distinctions；　and　after　a　gay　old　　age；　died　in　his　eighty…fourth　year；　without；　if　we　except　a　fall　from　　a　ladder；　having　ever　known　an　hour　of　sickness。　And　what　was　the　　difference　between　such　a　man　and　the　humanists？　The　latter　had　more　　free　will；　more　subjectivity；　than　they　could　turn　to　purposes　of　　happiness。　The　mendicant　friar；　who　had　lived　from　his　boyhood　in　the　　monastery；　and　never　eaten　or　slept　except　by　rule；　ceased　to　feel　the　　com…　pulsion　under　which　he　lived。　Through　the　power　of　this　habit　he　　led；　amid　all　outward　hardships；　a　life　of　inward　peace；　by　which　he　　impressed　his　hearers　far　more　than　by　his　teaching。　Looking　at　him；　　they　could　believe　that　it　depends　on　ourselves　whether　we　bear　up　　against　misfortune　or　surrender　to　it。　'Amid　want　and　toil　he　was　　happy；　because　he　willed　to　be　so；　because　he　had　contracted　no　evil　　habits；　was　not　capricious；　inconstant；　immoderate；　but　was　always　　contented　with　little　or　nothing。'　If　we　heard　Contarini　himself；　　religious　motives　would　no　doubt　play　a　part　in　the　argumentbut　the　　practical　philosopher　in　sandals　speaks　plainly　enough。　An　allied　　character；　but　placed　in　other　circumstances；　is　that　of　Fabio　Calvi　of　　Ravenna；　the　commentator　of　Hippocrates。　He　lived　to　a　great　age　in　　Rome；　eating　only　pulse　'like　the　Pythagoreans；'　and　dwelt　in　a　hovel　　little　better　than　the　tub　of　Diogenes。　Of　the　pension　which　Pope　Leo　　gave　him；　he　spent　enough　to　keep　body　and　soul　together；　and　gave　the　　rest　away。　He　was　not　a　healthy　man；　like　Fra　Urbano；　nor　is　it　likely　　that；　like　him；　he　died　with　a　smile　on　his　lips。　At　the　age　of　ninety；　　in　the　sack　of　Rome；　he　was　dragged　away　by　the　Spaniards；　who　hoped　　for　a　ransom；　and　died　of　hunger　in　a　hospital。　But　his　name　has　passed　　into　the　kingdom　of　the　immortals；　for　Raphael　loved　the　old　man　like　a　　father；　and　honoured　him　as　a　teacher；　and　came　to　him　for　advice　in　　all　things。　Perhaps　they　discoursed　chiefly　of　the　projected　　restoration　of　ancient　Rome；　perhaps　of　still　higher　matters。　Who　can　　tell　what　a　share　Fabio　may　have　had　in　the　conception　of　the　School　of　　Athens；　and　in　other　great　works　of　the　master？
  We　would　gladly　close　this　part　of　our　essay　with　the　picture　of　some　　pleasing　and　winning　character。　Pomponius　Laetus；　of　whom　we　shall　　briefly　speak；　is　known　to　us　principally　through　the　letter　of　his　　pupil　Sabellicus；　in　which　an　antique　coloring　is　purposely　given　to　　his　character。　Yet　many　of　its　features　are　clearly　recognizable。　He　　was　a　bastard　of　the　House　of　the　Neapolitan　Sanseverini；　princes　of　　Salerno；　whom　he　nevertheless　refused　to　recognize；　writing；　in　reply　　to　an　invitation　to　live　with　them；　the　famous　letter：　'Pomponius　　Laetus　cognatis　et　propinquis　suis　salutem。　Quod　petitis　fieri　non　　potest。　Valete。'　t　An　insignificant　little　figure；　with　small；　quick　　eyes；　and　quaint　dress；　he　lived；　during　the　last　decades　of　the　　fifteenth　century；　as　professor　in　the　University　of　Rome；　either　in　　his　cottage　in　a　garden　on　the　Esquiline　hill；　or　in　his　vineyard　on　　the　Quirinal。　In　the　one　he　bred　his　ducks　and　fowls；　the　other　he　　cultivated　according　to　the　strictest　precepts　of　Cato；　Varro；　and　　Columella。　He　spent　his　holidays　in　fishing　or　bird…catching　in　the　　Campagna；　or　in　feasting　by　some　shady　spring　or　on　the　banks　of　the　　Tiber。　Wealth　and　luxury　he　despised。　Free　himself　from　envy　and　　uncharitable　speech；　he　would　not　suffer　them　in　others。　It　was　only　　against　the　hierarchy　that　he　gave　his　tongue　free　play；　and　passed；　　till　his　latter　years；　for　a　scorner　of　religion　altogether。　He　was　　involved　in　the　persecution　of　the　humanists　begun　by　Pope　Paul　II；　and　　surrendered　to　this　pontiff　by　the　Venetians；　but　no　means　could　be　　found　to　wring　unworthy　confessions　from　him。　He　was　afterwards　　befriended　and　supported　by　popes　and　prelates；　and　when　his　house　was　　plundered　in　the　disturbances　under　Sixtus　IV；　more　was　collected　for　　him　than　he　had　lost。　No　teacher　was　more　conscientious。　Before　　daybreak　he　was　to　be　seen　descending　the　Esquiline　with　his　lantern；　　and　on　reaching　his　lecture…room　found　it　always　filled　to　overflowing。　　A　stutter　compelled　him　to　speak　with　care；　but　his　delivery　was　even　　and　effective。　His　few　works　give　evidence　of　careful　writing。　No　　scholar　treated　the　text　of　ancient　authors　more　soberly　and　　accurately。　The　remains　of　antiquity　which　surrounded　him　in　Rome　　touched　him　so　deeply　that　he　would　stand　before　them　as　if　entranced；　　or　would　suddenly　burst　into　tears　at　the　sight　of　them。　As　he　was　　ready　to　lay　aside　his　own　studies　in　order　to　help　others；　he　was　much　　loved　and　had　many　friends；　and　at　his　death；　even　Alexander　VI　sent　　his　courtiers　to　follow　the　corpse；　which　was　carried　by　the　most　　distinguished　of　his　pupils。　The　funeral　service　in　the　Aracceli　was　　attended　by　forty　bishops　and　by　all　the　foreign　ambassadors。
  It　was　Laetus　who　introduced　and　conducted　the　representations　of　　ancient；　chiefly　Plautine；　plays　in　Rome。　Every　year；　he　celebrated　the　　anniversary　of　the　foundation　of　the　city　by　a　festival；　at　which　his　　friends　and　pupils　recited　speeches　and　poems。　Such　meetings　were　the　　origin　of　what　acquired；　and　long　retained；　the　name　of　the　Roman　　Academy。　It　was　simply　a　free　union　of　individuals；　and　was　connected　　with　no　fixed　institution。　Besides　the　occasions　mentioned；　it　met　at　　the　invitation　of　a　patron；　or　to　celebrate　the　memory　of　a　deceased　　member；　as　of　Platina。　At　such　times；　a　prelate　belonging　to　the　　academy　would　first　say　mass；　Pomponio　would　then　ascend　the　pulpit　and　　deliver　a　speech；　someone　else　would　then　follow　him　and　recite　an　　elegy。　The　customary　banquet；　with　declamations　and　recitations；　　concluded　the　festival；　whether　joyous　or　serious；　and　the　　academicians；　notably　Platina　himself；　early　acquired　the　reputation　of　　epicures。　At　other　times；　the　guests　performed　farces　in　the　old　　Atellan　style。　As　a　free　association　of　very　varied　elements；　the　　academy　lasted　in　its　original　form　down　to　the　sack　of　Rome；　and　　included　among　its　hosts　Angelus　Coloccius；　Johannes　Corycius　and　　others。　Its　precise　value　as　an　element　in　the　intellectual　life　of　the　　people　is　as　hard　to　estimate　as　that　of　any　other　social　union　of　the　　same　kind；　yet　a　man　like　Sadoleto　reckoned　it　among　the　most　precious　　memories　of　his　youth。　A　large　number　of　other　academies　appeared　and　　passed　away　in　many　Italian　cities；　according　to　the　number　and　　significance　of　the　humanists　living　in　them；　and　to　the　patronage　　bestowed　by　the　great　and　wealthy。　Of　these　we　may　mention　the　Academy　　of　Naples；　of　which　Jovianus　Pontanus　was　the　centre；　and　which　sent　　out　a　colony　to　Lecce；　and　that　of　Pordenone；　which　formed　the　court　of　　the　Condottiere　Alviano。　The　circle　of　Lodovico　il　Moro；　and　its　　peculiar　importance　for　that　prince；　has　been　already　spoken　of。
  About　the　middle　of　the　sixteenth　century；　these　associations　seem　to　　have　undergone　a　complete　change。　The　humanists；　driven　in　other　　spheres　from　their　commanding　position；　and　viewed　askance　by　the　men　　of　the　Counter…reformation；　lost　the　control　of　the　academies：　and　　here；　as　elsewhere；　Latin　poetry　was　replaced　by　Italian。　Before　long　　every　town　of　the　least　importance　had　its　academy；　with　some　strange；　　fantastic　name；　and　its　own　endowment　and　subscriptions。　Besides　the　　recitation　of　verses；　the　new　institutions　inherited　from　their　　predecessors　the　regular　banquets　and　the　representation　of　plays；　　sometimes　acted　by　the　members　themselves；　sometimes　under　their　　direction　by　young　amateurs；　and　sometimes　by　paid　players。　The　fate　of　　the　Italian　stage；　and　afterwards　of　the　opera；　was　long　in　the　hands　　of　these　associations。
  PART　FOUR
  THE　DISCOVERY　OF　THE　WORLD　AND　OF　MAN
  Journeys　of　the　Italians
  Freed　from　the　countless　bonds　which　elsewhere　in　Europe　checked　　progress；　having　reached　a　high　degree　of　individual　development　and　　been　schooled　by　the　teachings　of　antiquity；　the　Italian　mind　now　　turned　to　the　discovery　of　the　outward　universe；　and　to　the　　representation　of　it　in　speech　and　form。
  On　the　journeys　of　the　Italians　to　distant　parts　of　the　world；　we　can　　here　make　but　a　few　general　observations。　The　Crusades　had　opened　　unknown　distances　to　the　European　mind；　and　awakened　in　all　the　passion　　for　travel　and　adventure。　It　may　be　hard　to　indicate　precisely　the　　point　where　this　passion　allied　itself　with；　or　became　the　servant　of；　　the　thirst　for　knowledge；　but　it　was　in　Italy　that　this　was　first　and　　most　completely　the　case。　Even　in　the　Crusades　the　interest　of　the　　Italians　was　wider　than　that　of　other　nations；　since　they　already　were　　a　naval　power　and　had　commercial　relations　with　the　East。　From　time　　immemorial　the　Mediterranean　Sea　had　given　to　the　nations　that　dwelt　on　　its　shores　mental　impulses　different　from　those　which　governed　the　　peoples　of　the　North；　and　never；　from　the　very　structure　of　their　　character；　could　the　Italians　be　adventurers　in　the　sense　which　the　　word　bore　among　the　Teutons。　After　they　were　once　at　home