rentine　Bruno　Casini；　who　died　of　the　plague　in　1348。　With　　the　practical　purpose　of　fitting　his　countrymen　to　speak　with　ease　and　　effect　in　public；　he　treated；　after　the　pattern　of　the　ancients；　　invention；　declamation；　bearing；　and　gesticulation；　each　in　its　proper　　connection。　Elsewhere　too　we　read　of　an　oratorical　training　directed　　solely　to　practical　application。　No　accomplishment　was　more　highly　　esteemed　than　the　power　of　elegant　improvisation　in　Latin。　The　growing　　study　of　Cicero's　speeches　and　theoretical　writings；　of　Quintilian　and　　of　the　imperial　panegyrists；　the　appearance　of　new　and　original　　treatises；　the　general　progress　of　antiquarian　learning；　and　the　stores　　of　ancient　matter　and　thought　which　now　could　and　must　be　drawn　from；　　all　combined　to　shape　the　character　of　the　new　eloquence。
  This　character　nevertheless　differed　widely　according　to　the　　individual。　Many　speeches　breathe　a　spirit　of　true　eloquence；　　especially　those　which　keep　to　the　matter　treated　of；　of　this　kind　is　　the　mass　of　what　is　left　to　us　of　Pius　II。　The　miraculous　effects　　produced　by　Giannozzo　Manetti　point　to　an　orator　the　like　of　whom　has　　not　been　often　seen。　His　great　audiences　as　envoy　before　Nicholas　V　and　　before　the　Doge　and　Council　of　Venice　were　events　not　to　be　soon　　forgotten。　Many　orators；　on　the　contrary；　would　seize　the　opportunity；　　not　only　to　flatter　the　vanity　of　distinguished　hearers；　but　to　load　　their　speeches　with　an　enormous　mass　of　antiquarian　rubbish。　How　it　was　　possible　to　endure　this　infliction　for　two　and　even　three　hours；　can　　only　be　understood　when　we　take　into　account　the　intense　interest　then　　felt　in　everything　connected　with　antiquity；　and　the　rarity　and　　defectiveness　of　treatises　on　the　subject　at　a　time　when　printing　was　　but　little　diffused。　Such　orations　had　at　least　the　value　which　we　have　　claimed　for　many　of　Petrarch's　letters。　But　some　speakers　went　too　far。　　Most　of　Filelfo's　speeches　are　an　atrocious　patchwork　of　classical　and　　biblical　quotations；　tacked　on　to　a　string　of　commonplaces；　among　which　　the　great　people　he　wishes　to　flatter　are　arranged　under　the　head　of　　the　cardinal　virtues；　or　some　such　category；　and　it　is　only　with　the　　greatest　trouble；　in　his　case　and　in　that　of　many　others；　that　we　can　　extricate　the　few　historical　no…　tices　of　any　value　which　they　really　　contain。　The　speech；　for　instance；　of　a　scholar　and　professor　of　　Piacenza　at　the　reception　of　the　Duke　Galeazzo　Maria；　in　1467；　begins　　with　Julius　Caesar；　then　proceeds　to　mix　up　a　mass　of　classical　　quotations　with　a　number　from　an　allegorical　work　by　the　speaker　　himself；　and　concludes　with　some　exceedingly　indiscreet　advice　to　the　　ruler。　Fortunately　it　was　late　at　night；　and　the　orator　had　to　be　　satisfied　with　handing　his　written　panegyric　to　the　prince。　Filelfo　　begins　a　speech　at　a　betrothal　with　the　words：　'Aristotle；　the　　peripatetic。'　Others　start　with　P。　Cornelius　Scipio；　and　the　like；　as　　though　neither　they　nor　their　hearers　could　wait　a　moment　for　a　　quotation。　At　the　end　of　the　fifteenth　century　public　taste　suddenly　　improved；　chiefly　through　Florentine　influence；　and　the　practice　of　　quotation　was　restricted　within　due　limits。　Many　works　of　reference　　were　now　in　existence；　in　which　the　first　comer　could　find　as　much　as　　he　wanted　of　what　had　hitherto　been　the　admiration　of　princes　and　　people。
  As　most　of　the　speeches　were　written　out　beforehand　in　the　study；　the　　manuscripts　served　as　a　means　of　further　publicity　afterwards。　The　　great　extemporaneous　speakers；　on　the　other　hand；　were　attended　by　　shorthand　writers。　We　must　further　remember　that　not　all　the　orations　　which　have　come　down　to　us　were　intended　to　be　actually　delivered。　The　　panegyric；　for　example；　of　the　elder　Beroaldus　on　Lodovico　il　Moro　was　　presented　to　him　in　manuscript。　In　fact；　just　as　letters　were　written　　addressed　to　all　conceivable　persons　and　parts　of　the　world　as　　exercises；　as　formularies；　or　even　to　serve　a　controversial　end；　so　　there　were　speeches　for　imaginary　occasions　to　be　used　as　models　for　　the　reception　of　princes；　bishops；　and　other　dignitaries。
  For　oratory；　as　for　the　other　arts；　the　death　of　Leo　X　（1521）　and　the　　sack　of　Rome　（1527）　mark　the　epoch　of　decadence。　Giovio；　but　just　　escaped　from　the　desolation　of　the　eternal　city；　described；　not　　impartially；　but　on　the　whole　correctly；　the　causes　of　this　decline：　　'The　plays　of　Plautus　and　Terence；　once　a　school　of　Latin　style　for　the　　educated　Romans；　are　banished　to　make　room　for　Italian　comedies。　　Graceful　speakers　no　longer　find　the　recognition　and　reward　which　they　　once　did。　The　Consistorial　advocates　no　longer　prepare　anything　but　the　　introductions　to　their　speeches；　and　deliver　the　resta　confused　　muddleon　the　inspiration　of　the　moment。　Sermons　and　occasional　　speeches　have　sunk　to　the　same　level。　If　a　funeral　oration　is　wanted　　for　a　cardinal　or　other　great　personage；　the　executors　do　not　apply　to　　the　best　orators　in　the　city；　to　whom　they　would　have　to　pay　a　hundred　　pieces　of　gold；　but　they　hire　for　a　trifle　the　first　impudent　pedant　　whom　they　come　across；　and　who　only　wants　to　be　talked　of；　whether　for　　good　or　ill。　The　dead；　they　say；　is　none　the　wiser　if　an　ape　stands　in　　a　black　dress　in　the　pulpit；　and　beginning　with　a　hoarse；　whimpering　　mumble；　passes　little　by　little　into　a　loud　howling。　Even　the　sermons　　preached　at　great　Papal　ceremonies　are　no　longer　profitable；　as　they　　used　to　be。　Monks　of　all　orders　have　again　got　them　into　their　hands；　　and　preach　as　if　they　were　speaking　to　the　mob。　Only　a　few　years　ago　a　　sermon　at　mass　before　the　Pope　might　easily　lead　the　way　to　a　　bishopric。'
  The　Treatise；　and　History　in　Latin
  From　the　oratory　and　the　epistolary　writings　of　the　humanists；　we　shall　　here　pass　on　to　their　other　creations；　which　were　all；　to　a　greater　or　　less　extent；　reproductions　of　antiquity。
  Among　these　must　be　placed　the　treatise；　which　often　took　the　shape　of　　a　dialogue。　In　this　case　it　was　borrowed　directly　from　Cicero。　In　order　　to　do　anything　like　justice　to　this　class　of　literaturein　order　not　　to　throw　it　aside　at　first　sight　as　a　bore　two　things　must　be　taken　　into　consideration。　The　century　which　escaped　from　the　influence　of　the　　Middle　Ages　felt　the　need　of　something　to　mediate　between　itself　and　　antiquity　in　many　questions　of　morals　and　philosophy；　and　this　need　was　　met　by　the　writer　of　treatises　and　dialogues。　Much　which　appears　to　us　　as　mere　commonplace　in　their　writings；　was　for　them　and　their　　contemporaries　a　new　and　hard…won　view　of　things　upon　which　mankind　had　　been　silent　since　the　days　of　antiquity。　The　language　too；　in　this　form　　of　writing；　whether　Italian　or　Latin；　moved　more　freely　and　flexibly　　than　in　historical　narrative；　in　letters；　or　in　oratory；　and　thus　　became　in　itself　the　source　of　a　special　pleasure。　Several　Italian　　compositions　of　this　kind　still　hold　their　place　as　patterns　of　style。　　Many　of　these　works　have　been；　or　will　be　mentioned　on　account　of　their　　contents；　we　here　refer　to　them　as　a　class。　From　the　time　of　Petrarch's　　letters　and　treatises　down　to　near　the　end　of　the　fifteenth　century；　　the　heaping　up　of　learned　quotations；　as　in　the　case　of　the　orators；　is　　the　main　business　of　most　of　these　writers。　Subsequently　the　whole　　style；　especially　in　Italian；　was　purified；　until；　in　the　'Asolani'　of　　Bembo；　and　the　'Vita　Sobria'　of　Luigi　Cornaro；　a　classical　perfection　　was　reached。　Here　too　the　decisive　fact　was　this；　that　antiquarian　　matter　of　every　kind　had　meantime　begun　to　be　deposited　in　encyclopedic　　works　（now　printed）；　and　no　longer　stood　in　the　way　of　the　essayist。
  It　was　inevitable　too　that　the　humanistic　spirit　should　control　the　　writing　of　history。　A　superficial　comparison　of　the　histories　of　this　　period　with　the　earlier　chronicles；　especially　with　works　so　full　of　　life；　color；　and　brilliancy　as　those　of　the　Villani；　will　lead　us　　loudly　to　deplore　the　change。　How　insipid　and　conventional　appear　by　　their　side　the　best　of　the　humanists；　and　particularly　their　immediate　　and　most　famous　successors　among　the　historians　of　Florence；　Leonardo　　Aretino　and　Poggio！　The　enjoyment　of　the　reader　is　incessantly　marred　　by　the　sense　that；　in　the　classical　phrases　of　Fazio；　Sabellico；　　Foglietta；　Senarega；　Platina　in　the　chronicles　of　Mantua；　Bembo　in　the　　annals　of　Venice；　and　even　of　Giovio　in　his　histories；　the　best　local　　and　individual　coloring　and　the　full　sincerity　of　interest　in　the　truth　　of　events　have　been　lost。　Our　mistrust　is　increased　when　we　hear　that　　Livy；　the　pattern　of　this　school　of　writers；　was　copied　just　where　he　　is　least　worthy　of　imitationon　the　ground；　namely；　'that　he　turned　a　　dry　and　walled　tradition　into　grace　and　richness。'　In　the　same　place　we　　meet　with　the　suspicious　declaration　that　it　is　the　function　of　the　　historian　just　as　if　he　were　one　with　the　poetto　excite；　charm；　or　　overwhelm　the　reader。　We　ask　ourselves　finally；　whether　the　contempt　　for　modern　things；　which　these　same　humanists　sometimes　avowed　openly；　　must　not　necessarily　have　had　an　unfortunate　influence　on　their　　treatment　of　them。　Unconsciously　the　reader　finds　himself　looking　with　　more　interest　and　confidence　on　the　unpretending　Latin　and　Italian　　annalists；