Together　with　these　there　appeared　in　the　sixteenth　century　the　　classical　style　of　Italian　correspondence；　at　the　head　of　which　stands　　Bembo　again。　Its　form　is　wholly　modern；　and　deliberately　kept　free　from　　Latin　influence；　and　yet　its　spirit　is　thoroughly　penetrated　and　　possessed　by　the　ideas　of　antiquity。
  But　at　a　time　and　among　a　people　where　'listening'　was　among　the　chief　　pleasures　of　life；　and　where　every　imagination　was　filled　with　the　　memory　of　the　Roman　senate　and　its　great　speakers；　the　orator　occupied　　a　far　more　brilliant　place　than　the　letter…writer。　Eloquence　had　shaken　　off　the　influence　of　the　Church；　in　which　it　had　found　a　refuge　during　　the　Middle　Ages；　and　now　became　an　indispensable　element　and　ornament　　of　all　elevated　lives。　Many　of　the　social　hours　which　are　now　filled　　with　music　were　then　given　to　Latin　or　Italian　oratory；　with　results　　which　every　reader　can　imagine。
  The　social　position　of　the　speaker　was　a　matter　of　perfect　　indifference；　what　was　desired　was　simply　the　most　cultivated　　humanistic　talent。　At　the　court　of　Borso　of　Ferrara；　the　Duke's　　physician；　Girolamo　da　Castello；　was　chosen　to　deliver　the　　congratulatory　address　on　the　visits　of　Frederick　III　and　of　Pius　II。　　Married　laymen　ascended　the　pulpits　of　the　churches　at　any　scene　of　　festivity　or　mourning）　and　even　on　the　feastdays　of　the　saints。　It　　struck　the　non…Italian　members　of　the　Council　of　Basle　as　something　　strange　that　the　Archbishop　of　Milan　should　summon　Aeneas　Sylvius；　who　　was　then　unordained；　to　deliver　a　public　discourse　at　the　feast　of　　Saint　Ambrose；　but　they　suffered　it　in　spite　of　the　murmurs　of　the　　theologians；　and　listened　to　the　speaker　with　the　greatest　curiosity。
  Let　us　glance　for　a　moment　at　the　most　frequent　and　important　occasions　　of　public　speaking。
  It　was　not　for　nothing；　in　the　first　place；　that　the　ambassadors　from　　one　State　to　another　received　the　title　of　orators。　Whatever　else　might　　be　done　in　the　way　of　secret　negotiation；　the　envoy　never　failed　to　　make　a　public　appearance　and　deliver　a　public　speech；　under　　circumstances　of　the　greatest　possible　pomp　and　ceremony。　As　a　rule；　　however　numerous　the　embassy　might　be；　one　individual　spoke　for　all；　　but　it　happened　to　Pius　II；　a　critic　before　whom　all　were　glad　to　be　　heard；　to　be　forced　to　sit　and　listen　to　a　whole　deputation；　one　after　　another。　Learned　princes　who　had　the　gift　of　speech　were　themselves　　fond　of　discoursing　in　Latin　or　Italian。　The　children　of　the　House　of　　Sforza　were　trained　to　this　exercise。　The　boy　Galeazzo　Maria　delivered　　in　1455　a　fluent　speech　before　the　Great　Council　at　Venice；　and　his　　sister　Ippolita　saluted　Pope　Pius　II　with　a　graceful　address　at　the　　Congress　of　Mantua　（1459）。　Pius　himself　through　all　his　life　did　much　　by　his　oratory　to　prepare　the　way　for　his　final　elevation　to　the　Papal　　chair。　Great　as　he　was　both　as　scholar　and　diplomatist；　he　would　　probably　never　have　become　Pope　without　the　fame　and　the　charm　of　his　　eloquence。　'For　nothing　was　more　lofty　than　the　dignity　of　his　　oratory。'　Without　doubt　this　was　a　reason　why　multitudes　held　him　to　be　　the　fittest　man　for　the　office　even　before　his　election。
  Princes　were　also　commonly　received　on　public　occasions　with　speeches；　　which　sometimes　lasted　for　hours。　This　happened　of　course　only　when　the　　prince　was　known　as　a　lover　of　eloquence；　or　wished　to　pass　for　such；　　and　when　a　competent　speaker　was　present；　whether　university　professor；　　official；　ecclesiastic；　physician；　or　court…scholar。　Every　other　　political　opportunity　was　seized　with　the　same　eagerness；　and　according　　to　the　reputation　of　the　speaker；　the　concourse　of　the　lovers　of　　culture　was　great　or　small。　At　the　yearly　change　of　public　officers；　　and　even　at　the　consecration　of　new　bishops；　a　humanist　was　sure　to　　come　forward；　and　sometimes　addressed　his　audience　in　hexameters　or　　Sapphic　verses。　Often　a　newly　appointed　official　was　himself　forced　to　　deliver　a　speech　more　or　less　relevant　to　his　department；　as；　for　　instance；　on　justice；　and　lucky　for　him　if　he　were　well　up　in　his　part！　　At　Florence　even　the　Condottieri；　whatever　their　origin　or　education　　might　be；　were　compelled　to　accommodate　themselves　to　the　popular　　sentiment；　and　on　receiving　the　insignia　of　their　office；　were　　harangued　before　the　assembled　people　by　the　most　learned　secretary　of　　state。　It　seems　that　beneath　or　close　to　the　Loggia　de'　Lanzithe　　porch　where　the　government　was　wont　to　appear　solemnly　before　the　　people　a　tribune　or　platform　_（rostra；　ringhiera）　_was　erected　for　such　　purposes。
  Anniversaries；　especially　those　of　the　death　of　princes；　were　commonly　　celebrated　by　memorial　speeches。　Even　the　funeral　oration　strictly　so　　called　was　generally　entrusted　to　a　humanist；　who　delivered　it　in　　church；　clothed　in　a　secular　dress；　nor　was　it　only　princes；　but　　officials；　or　persons　otherwise　distinguished；　to　whom　this　honour　was　　paid。　This　was　also　the　case　with　the　speeches　delivered　at　weddings　or　　betrothals；　with　the　difference　that　they　seem　to　have　been　made　in　the　　palace；　instead　of　in　church；　like　that　of　Filelfo　at　the　betrothal　of　　Anna　Sforza　to　Alfonso　of　Este　in　the　castle　of　Milan。　It　is　still　　possible　that　the　ceremony　may　have　taken　place　in　the　chapel　of　the　　castle。　Private　families　of　distinction　no　doubt　also　employed　such　　wedding　orators　as　one　of　the　luxuries　of　high　life。　At　Ferrara；　　Guarino　was　requested　on　these　occasions　to　send　some　one　or　other　of　　his　pupils。　The　clergy　performed　only　the　purely　religious　ceremonies　　at　weddings　and　funerals。
  The　academical　speeches；　both　those　made　at　the　installation　of　a　new　　teacher　and　at　the　opening　of　a　new　course　of　lectures　were　delivered　　by　the　professor　himself；　and　treated　as　occasions　of　great　rhetorical　　display。　The　ordinary　university　lectures　also　usually　had　an　　oratorical　character。
  With　regard　to　forensic　eloquence；　the　quality　of　the　audience　　determined　the　form　of　speech。　In　case　of　need　it　was　enriched　with　all　　sorts　of　philosophical　and　antiquarian　learning。
  As　a　special　class　of　speeches　we　may　mention　the　address　made　in　　Italian　on　the　battlefield；　either　before　or　after　the　combat。　Federigo　　of　Urbino　was　esteemed　a　classic　in　this　style；　he　used　to　pass　round　　among　his　squadrons　as　they　stood　drawn　up　in　order　of　battle；　　inspiring　them　in　turn　with　pride　and　enthusiasm。　Many　of　the　speeches　　in　the　military　historians　of　the　fifteenth　century；　as　for　instance　in　　Porcellius；　may　be；　in　part　at　least；　imaginary；　but　may　be　also　in　　part　faithful　representations　of　words　actually　spoken。　The　addresses　　again　which　were　delivered　to　the　Florentine　Militia；　organized　in　1506　　chiefly　through　the　influence　of　Machiavelli；　and　which　were　spoken　　first　at　reviews；　and　afterwards　at　special　annual　festivals；　were　of　　another　kind。　They　were　simply　general　appeals　to　the　patriotism　of　the　　hearers；　and　were　addressed　to　the　assembled　troops　in　the　church　of　　each　quarter　of　the　city　by　a　citizen　in　armor；　sword　in　hand。
  Finally；　the　oratory　of　the　pulpit　began　in　the　fifteenth　century　to　　lose　its　distinctive　peculiarities。　Many　of　the　clergy　had　entered　into　　the　circle　of　classical　culture；　and　were　ambitious　of　success　in　it。　　The　street…preacher　Bernardino　da　Siena；　who　even　in　his　lifetime　　passed　for　a　saint　and　who　was　worshipped　by　the　populace；　was　not　　above　taking　lessons　in　rhetoric　from　the　famous　Guarino；　although　he　　had　only　to　preach　in　Italian。　Never　indeed　was　more　expected　from　　preachers　than　at　that　time　especially　from　the　Lenten　preachers；　and　　there　were　not　a　few　audiences　which　could　not　only　tolerate；　but　which　　demanded　a　strong　dose　of　philosophy　from　the　pulpit。　But　we　have　here　　especially　to　speak　of　the　distinguished　occasional　preachers　in　Latin。　　Many　of　their　opportunities　had　been　taken　away　from　them；　as　has　been　　observed；　by　learned　laymen。　Speeches　on　particular　saints'　days；　at　　weddings　and　funerals；　or　at　the　installation　of　a　bishop；　and　even　the　　introductory　speech　at　the　first　mass　of　a　clerical　friend；　or　the　　address　at　the　festival　of　some　religious　order；　were　all　left　to　　laymen。　But　at　all　events　at　the　Papal　court　in　the　fifteenth　century；　　whatever　the　occasion　might　be；　the　preachers　were　generally　monks。　　Under　Sixtus　IV；　Giacomo　da　Volterra　regularly　enumerates　these　　preachers；　and　criticizes　them　according　to　the　rules　of　the　art。　Fedra　　Inghirami；　famous　as　an　orator　under　Julius　II；　had　at　least　received　　holy　orders　and　was　canon　at　St。　John　Lateran；　and　besides　him；　elegant　　Latinists　were　now　common　enough　among　the　prelates。　In　this　matter；　as　　in　others；　the　exaggerated　privileges　of　the　profane　humanists　appear　　lessened　in　the　sixteenth　century　on　which　point　we　shall　presently　　speak　more　fully。
  What　now　was　the　subject　and　general　character　of　these　speeches？　The　　national　gift　of　eloquence　was　not　wanting　to　the　Italians　of　the　　Middle　Ages；　and　a　so…called　'rhetoric'　belonged　from　the　first　to　the　　seven　liberal　arts；　but　so　far　as　the　revival　of　the　ancient　methods　is　　concerned；　this　merit　must　be　ascribed；　according　to　Filippo　Villani；　　to　the　Florentine　Bruno　Casini；　who　died　of　the　plague　in　1348。　With　　the　practical