in　the　wall；　and　through　this　　he　drove　in　a　gilded　chariot　like　a　Roman　Triumphator。　The　memory　of　　the　scene　is　preserved　by　a　noble　triumphal　arch　of　marble　in　the　　Castello　Nuovo。　His　Neapolitan　successors　inherited　as　little　of　this　　passion　for　antiquity　as　of　his　other　good　qualities。
  Alfonso　was　far　surpassed　in　learning　by　Federigo　of　Urbino；　who　had　　but　few　courtiers　around　him；　squandered　nothing；　and　in　his　　appropriation　of　antiquity；　as　in　all　other　things；　went　to　work　　considerately。　It　was　for　him　and　for　Nicholas　V　that　most　of　the　　translations　from　the　Greek；　and　a　number　of　the　best　commentaries　and　　other　such　works；　were　written。　He　spent　much　on　the　scholars　whose　　services　he　used；　but　spent　it　to　good　purpose。　There　were　no　traces　of　　the　official　poet　at　Urbino；　where　the　Duke　himself　was　the　most　　learned　in　the　whole　court。　Classical　antiquity；　indeed；　only　formed　a　　part　of　his　culture。　An　accomplished　ruler；　captain；　and　gentleman；　he　　had　mastered　the　greater　part　of　the　science　of　the　day；　and　this　with　　a　view　to　its　practical　application。　As　a　theologian；　he　was　able　to　　compare　Scotus　with　Aquinas；　and　was　familiar　with　the　writings　of　the　　old　fathers　of　the　Eastern　and　Western　Churches；　the　former　in　Latin　　translations。　In　philosophy；　he　seems　to　have　left　Plato　altogether　to　　his　contemporary　Cosimo；　but　he　knew　thoroughly　not　only　the　'Ethics'　　and　'Politics'　of　Aristotle　but　the　'Physics'　and　some　other　works。　The　　rest　of　his　reading　lay　chiefly　among　the　ancient　historians；　all　of　　whom　he　possessed；　these；　and　not　the　poets；　'he　was　always　reading　and　　having　read　to　him'。
  The　Sforza；　too；　were　all　of　them　men　of　more　or　less　learning　and　　patrons　of　literature；　they　have　been　already　referred　to　in　passing。　　Duke　Francesco　probably　looked　on　humanistic　culture　as　a　matter　of　　course　in　the　education　of　his　children；　if　only　for　political　reasons。　　It　was　felt　universally　to　be　an　advantage　if　the　Prince　could　mix　with　　the　most　instructed　men　of　his　time　on　an　equal　footing。　Lodovico　il　　Moro；　himself　an　excellent　Latin　scholar；　showed　an　interest　in　　intellectual　matters　which　extended　far　beyond　classical　antiquity。
  Even　the　petty　despots　strove　after　similar　distinctions；　and　we　do　　them　injustice　by　thinking　that　they　only　supported　the　scholars　at　　their　courts　as　a　means　of　diffusing　their　own　fame。　A　ruler　like　Borso　　of　Ferrara；　with　all　his　vanity；　seems　by　no　means　to　have　looked　for　　immortality　from　the　poets；　eager　as　they　were　to　propitiate　him　with　a　　'Borseid'　and　the　like。　He　had　far　too　proud　a　sense　of　his　own　　position　as　a　ruler　for　that。　But　intercourse　with　learned　men；　　interest　in　antiquarian　matters；　and　the　passion　for　elegant　Latin　　correspondence　were　necessities　for　the　princes　of　that　age。　What　　bitter　complaints　are　those　of　Duke　Alfonso；　competent　as　he　was　in　　practical　matters；　that　his　weakliness　in　youth　had　forced　him　to　seek　　recreation　in　manual　pursuits　only！　or　was　this　merely　an　excuse　to　　keep　the　humanists　at　a　distance？　A　nature　like　his　was　not　　intelligible　even　to　contemporaries。
  Even　the　most　insignificant　despots　of　Romagna　found　it　hard　to　do　　without　one　or　two　men　of　letters　about　them。　The　tutor　and　secretary　　were　often　one　and　the　same　person；　who　sometimes；　indeed；　acted　as　a　　kind　of　court　factotum。　We　are　apt　to　treat　the　small　scale　of　these　　courts　as　a　reason　for　dismissing　them　with　a　too　ready　contempt；　　forgetting　that　the　highest　spiritual　things　are　not　precisely　matters　　of　measurement。
  Life　and　manners　at　the　court　of　Rimini　must　have　been　a　singular　　spectacle　under　the　bold　pagan　Condottiere　Sigismondo　Malatesta。　He　had　　a　number　of　scholars　around　him；　some　of　whom　he　provided　for　　liberally；　even　giving　them　landed　estates；　while　others　earned　at　　least　a　livelihood　as　officers　in　his　army。　In　his　citadl　　'arx　　Sismundea'　　they　used　to　hold　discussions；　often　of　a　very　venomous　　kind；　in　the　presence　of　the　'rex'；　as　they　termed　him。　In　their　Latin　　poems　they　sing　his　praises　and　celebrate　his　amour　with　the　fair　　Isotta；　in　whose　honour　and　as　whose　monument　the　famous　rebuilding　of　　San　Francesco　at　Rimini　took　place　　'Divae　Isottae　Sacrum'。　When　the　　humanists　themselves　came　to　die；　they　were　laid　in　or　under　the　　sarcophagi　with　which　the　niches　of　the　outside　walls　of　the　church　　were　adorned；　with　an　inscription　testifying　that　they　were　laid　here　　at　the　time　when　Sigismundus；　the　son　of　Pandulfus；　ruled。　It　is　hard　　for　us　nowadays　to　believe　that　a　monster　like　this　prince　felt　　learning　and　the　friendship　of　cultivated　people　to　be　a　necessity　of　　life；　and　yet　the　man　who　excommunicated　hirn；　made　war　upon　him；　and　　burnt　him　in　effigy；　Pope　Pius　II；　says：　'Sigismondo　knew　history　and　　had　a　great　store　of　philosophy；　he　seemed　born　to　all　that　he　　undertook'。
  Propagators　of　Antiquity；　Epistolography：　Latin　Orators
  There　were　two　purposes；　however；　for　which　the　humanist　was　as　　indispensable　to　the　republics　as　to　princes　or　popes；　namely；　the　　official　correspondence　of　the　State；　and　the　making　of　speeches　on　　public　and　solemn　occasions。
  Not　only　was　the　secretary　required　to　be　a　competent　Latinist；　but　　conversely；　only　a　humanist　was　credited　with　the　knowledge　and　ability　　necessary　for　the　post　of　secretary。　And　thus　the　greatest　men　in　the　　sphere　of　science　during　the　fifteenth　century　mostly　devoted　a　　considerable　part　of　their　lives　to　serve　the　State　in　this　capacity。　　No　importance　was　attached　to　a　man's　home　or　origin。　Of　the　four　great　　Florentine　secretaries　who　filled　the　office　between　1427　and　1465；　　three　belonged　to　the　subject　city　of　Arezzo；　namely；　Leonardo　（Bruni）；　　Carlo　（Marzuppini）；　and　Benedetto　Accolti；　Poggio　was　from　Terra　Nuova；　　also　in　Florentine　territory。　For　a　long　period；　indeed；　many　of　the　　highest　offices　of　State　were　on　principle　given　to　foreigners。　　Leonardo；　Poggio；　and　Giannozzo　Manetti　were　at　one　time　or　another　　private　secretaries　to　the　popes；　and　Carlo　Aretino　was　to　have　been　　so。　Biondo　of　Forli；　and；　in　spite　of　everything；　at　last　even　Lorenzo　　Valla；　filled　the　same　office。　From　the　time　of　Nicholas　V　and　Pius　II　　onwards；　the　Papal　chancery　continued　more　and　more　to　attract　the　　ablest　men；　and　this　was　still　the　case　even　under　the　last　popes　of　　the　fifteenth　century；　little　as　they　cared　for　letters。　In　Platina's　　'History　of　the　Popes；'　the　life　of　Paul　II　is　a　charming　piece　of　　vengeance　taken　by　a　humanist　on　the　one　Pope　who　did　not　know　how　to　　behave　to　his　chanceryto　that　circle　'of　poets　and　orators　who　　bestowed　on　the　Papal　court　as　much　glory　as　they　received　from　it。'　It　　is　delightful　to　see　the　indignation　of　these　haughty　gentlemen；　when　　some　squabble　about　precedence　happened；　when；　for　instance；　the　　'Advocati　consistoriales'　claimed　equal　or　superior　rank　to　theirs。　The　　Apostle　John；　to　whom　the　'Secreta　caelestia'　were　revealed；　the　　secretary　of　Porsenna；　whom　Mucius　Scaevola　mistook　for　the　king；　　Maecenas；　who　was　private　secretary　to　Augustus；　the　archbishops；　who　　in　Germany　were　called　chancellors；　are　all　appealed　to　in　turn。　'The　　apostolic　secretaries　have　the　most　weighty　business　of　the　world　in　　their　hands。　For　who　but　they　decide　on　matters　of　the　Catholic　faith；　　who　else　combat　heresy；　re…establish　peace；　and　mediate　between　great　　monarchs；　who　but　they　write　the　statistical　accounts　of　Christendom？　　It　is　they　who　astonish　kings；　princes；　and　nations　by　what　comes　forth　　from　the　Pope。　They　write　commands　and　instructions　for　the　legates；　　and　receive　their　orders　only　from　the　Pope；　on　whom　they　wait　day　and　　night。'　But　the　highest　summit　of　glory　was　only　attained　by　the　two　　famous　secretaries　and　stylists　of　Leo　X：　Pietro　Bembo　and　Jacopo　　Sadoleto。
  All　the　chanceries　did　not　turn　out　equally　elegant　documents。　A　　leathern　official　style；　in　the　impurest　of　Latin；　was　very　common。　In　　the　Milanese　documents　preserved　by　Corio　there　is　a　remarkable　　contrast　between　this　sort　of　composition　and　the　few　letters　written　　by　members　of　the　princely　house；　which　must　have　been　written；　too；　in　　moments　of　critical　importance。　They　are　models　of　pure　Latinity。　To　　maintain　a　faultless　style　under　all　circumstances　was　a　rule　of　good　　breeding；　and　a　result　of　habit。
  The　letters　of　Cicero；　Pliny；　and　others；　were　at　this　time　diligently　　studied　as　models。　As　early　as　the　fifteenth　century　a　great　mass　of　　manuals　and　models　for　Latin　correspondence　had　appeared　（as　off…shoots　　of　the　great　grammatical　and　lexicographic　works）；　a　mass　which　is　　astounding　to　us　even　now　when　we　look　at　them　in　the　libraries。　But　　just　as　the　existence　of　these　helps　tempted　many　to　undertake　a　task　　to　which　they　had　no　vocation；　so　were　the　really　capable　men　　stimulated　to　a　more　faultless　excellence；　till　at　length　the　letters　　of　Politian；　and　at　the　beginning　of　the　sixteenth　century　those　of　　Pietro　Bembo；　appeared；　and　took　their　place　as　unrivalled　　masterpieces；　not　only　of　Latin　style　in　general；　but　also　of　the　more　　special　art　of　letter…writing。
  Together　with　these　there　appeared　in　the　sixteenth　century　the　　classical　style　of　Italian　correspondence；　at　the　head　of　wh