eproduction　of　antiquity　in　literature　and　life。　One　word　more　on　the　　studies　themselves　may　still　be　permissible。
  Greek　scholarship　was　chiefly　confined　to　Florence　and　to　the　fifteenth　　and　the　beginning　of　the　sixteenth　centuries。　The　impulse　which　had　　proceeded　from　Petrarch　and　Boccaccio；　superficial　as　was　their　own　　acquaintance　with　Greek；　was　powerful；　but　did　not　tell　immediately　on　　their　contemporaries；　except　a　few；　on　the　other　hand；　the　study　of　　Greek　literature　died　out　about　the　year　1520　with　the　last　of　the　　colony　of　learned　Greek　exiles；　and　it　was　a　singular　piece　of　fortune　　that　northerners　like　Erasmus；　the　Stephani；　and　Budaeus　had　meanwhile　　made　themselves　masters　of　the　language。　That　colony　had　begun　with　　Manuel　Chrysoloras　and　his　relation　John；　and　with　George　of　Trebizond。　　Then　followed；　about　and　after　the　time　of　the　conquest　of　　Constantinople；　John　Argyropulos；　Theodore　Gaza；　Demetrios　　Chalcondylas；　who　brought　up　his　sons　Theophilos　and　Basilios　to　be　　excellent　Hellenists；　Andronikos　Kallistos；　Marcos　Musuros　and　the　　family　of　Lascaris；　not　to　mention　others。　But　after　the　subjection　of　　Greece　by　the　Turks　was　completed；　the　succession　of　scholars　was　　maintained　only　by　the　sons　of　the　fugitives　and　perhaps　here　and　there　　by　some　Candian　or　Cyprian　refugee。　That　the　decay　of　Hellenistic　　studies　began　about　the　time　of　the　death　of　Leo　X　was　due　partly　to　a　　general　change　of　intellectual　attitude；　and　to　a　certain　satiety　of　　classical　influences　which　now　made　itself　felt；　but　its　coincidence　　with　the　death　of　the　Greek　fugitives　was　not　wholly　a　matter　of　　accident。　The　study　of　Greek　among　the　Italians　appears；　if　we　take　the　　year　1500　as　our　standard；　to　have　been　pursued　with　extraordinary　　zeal。　Many　of　those　who　then　learned　the　language　could　still　speak　it　　half　a　century　later；　in　their　old　age；　like　the　Popes　Paul　III　and　　Paul　IV。　But　this　sort　of　mastery　of　the　study　presupposes　intercourse　　with　native　Greeks。
  Besides　Florence；　Rome　and　Padua　nearly　always　maintained　paid　teachers　　of　Greek；　and　Verona；　Ferrara；　Venice；　Perugia；　Pavia　and　other　cities　　occasional　teachers。　Hellenistic　studies　owed　a　priceless　debt　to　the　　press　of　Aldo　Manuzio　at　Venice；　where　the　most　important　and　　voluminous　writers　were　for　the　first　time　printed　in　the　original。　　Aldo　ventured　his　all　in　the　enterprise；　he　was　an　editor　and　publisher　　whose　like　the　world　has　rarely　seen。
  Along　with　this　classical　revival；　Oriental　studies　now　assumed　　considerable　proportions。　The　controversial　writings　of　the　great　　Florentine　statesman　and　scholar；　Giannozzo　Manetti　（d。　1459）　against　　the　Jews　afford　an　early　instance　of　a　complete　mastery　of　their　　language　and　science。　His　son　Agnolo　was　from　his　childhood　instructed　　in　Latin；　Greek　and　Hebrew。　The　father；　at　the　bidding　of　Nicholas　V；　　translated　the　whole　Bible　afresh；　as　the　philologists　of　the　time　　insisted　on　giving　up　the　'Vulgata。'
  Many　other　humanists　devoted　themselves　before　Reuchlin　to　the　study　of　　Hebrew；　among　them　Pico　della　Mirandola；　who　was　not　satisfied　with　a　　knowledge　of　the　Hebrew　grammar　and　ScriptureS；　but　penetrated　into　the　　Jewish　Cabbalah　and　even　made　himself　as　familiar　with　the　literature　　of　the　Talmud　as　any　Rabbi。
  Among　the　Oriental　languages；　Arabic　was　studied　as　well　as　Hebrew。　The　　science　of　medicine；　no　longer　satisfied　with　the　older　Latin　　translations　of　the　great　Arab　physicians；　had　constant　recourse　to　the　　originals；　to　which　an　easy　access　was　offered　by　the　Venetian　　consulates　in　the　East；　where　Italian　doctors　were　regularly　kept。　　Hieronimo　Ramusio；　a　Venetian　physician；　translated　a　great　part　of　　Avicenna　from　the　Arabic　and　died　at　Damascus　in　1486。　Andrea　Mongaio　　of　Belluno　lived　long　at　Damascus　for　the　purpose　of　studying　Avicenna；　　learnt　Arabic；　and　emended　the　author's　text。　The　Venetian　government　　afterwards　appointed　him　professor　of　this　subject　at　Padua。
  We　must　here　linger　for　a　moment　over　Pico　della　Mirandola；　before　　passing　on　to　the　general　effects　of　humanism。　He　was　the　only　man　who　　loudly　and　vigorously　defended　the　truth　and　science　of　all　ages　　against　the　one…sided　worship　of　classical　antiquity。　He　knew　how　to　　value　not　only　Averroes　and　the　Jewish　investigators；　but　also　the　　scholastic　writers　of　the　Middle　Ages；　according　to　the　matter　of　their　　writings。　In　one　of　his　writings　he　makes　them　say；　'We　shall　live　for　　ever；　not　in　the　schools　of　word…catchers；　but　in　the　circle　of　the　　wise；　where　they　talk　not　of　the　mother　of　Andromache　or　of　the　sons　of　　Niobe；　but　of　the　deeper　causes　of　things　human　and　divine；　he　who　　looks　closely　will　see　that　even　the　barbarians　had　intelligence　　_（mercurium）；　_not　on　the　tongue　but　in　the　breast。'　Himself　writing　a　　vigorous　and　not　inelegant　Latin；　and　a　master　of　clear　exposition；　he　　despised　the　purism　of　pedants　and　the　current　over…estimate　of　　borrowed　forms；　especially　when　joined；　as　they　often　are；　with　one…　sidedness；　and　involving　indifference　to　the　wider　truth　of　the　things　　themselves。　Looking　at　Pico；　we　can　guess　at　the　lofty　flight　which　　Italian　philosophy　would　have　taken　had　not　the　counter…reformation　　annihilated　the　higher　spiritual　life　of　the　people。
  The　Humanists
  Who　now　were　those　who　acted　as　mediators　between　their　own　age　and　a　　venerated　antiquity；　and　made　the　latter　a　chief　element　in　the　culture　　of　the　former？
  They　were　a　crowd　of　the　most　miscellaneous　sort；　wearing　one　face　　today　and　another　tomorrow；　but　they　clearly　felt　themselves；　and　it　　was　fully　recognized　by　their　time　that　they　formed；　a　wholly　new　　element　in　society。　The　'clerici　vagantes'　of　the　twelfth　century　may　　perhaps　be　taken　as　their　forerun…　nersthe　same　unstable　existence；　　the　same　free　and　more　than　free　views　of　life；　and　the　germs　at　all　　events　of　the　same　pagan　tendencies　in　their　poetry。　But　now；　as　　competitor　with　the　whole　culture　of　the　Middle　Ages；　which　was　　essentially　clerical　and　was　fostered　by　the　Church；　there　appeared　a　　new　civilization；　founding　itself　on　that　which　lay　on　the　other　side　　of　the　Middle　Ages。　Its　active　representatives　became　influential　　because　they　knew　what　the　ancients　knew；　because　they　tried　to　write　　as　the　ancients　wrote；　because　they　began　to　think；　and　soon　to　feel；　　as　the　ancients　thought　and　felt。　The　tradition　to　which　they　devoted　　themselves　passed　at　a　thousand　points　into　genuine　reproduction。
  Some　modern　writers　deplore　the　fact　that　the　germs　of　a　far　more　　independent　and　essentially　national　culture；　such　as　appeared　in　　Florence　about　the　year　1300；　were　afterwards　so　completely　swamped　by　　the　humanists。　There　was　then；　we　are　told；　nobody　in　Florence　who　　could　not　read；　even　the　donkeymen　sang　the　verses　of　Dante；　the　best　　Italian　manuscripts　which　we　possess　belonged　originally　to　Florentine　　artisans；　the　publication　of　a　popular　encyclopedia；　like　the　'Tesoro'　　of　Brunetto　Latini；　was　then　possible；　and　all　this　was　founded　on　d　　strength　and　soundness　of　character　due　to　the　universal　participation　　in　public　affairs；　to　commerce　and　travel；　and　to　the　systematic　　reprobation　of　idleness。　The　Florentines；　it　is　urged；　were　at　that　　time　respected　and　influential　throughout　the　whole　world；　and　were　　called　in　that　year；　not　without　reason；　by　Pope　Boniface　VIII；　'the　　fifth　element。'　The　rapid　progress　of　humanism　after　the　year　1400　　paralysed　native　impulses。　Henceforth　men　looked　only　to　antiquity　for　　the　solution　of　every　problem；　and　consequently　allowed　literature　to　　turn　into　mere　quotation。　Nay；　the　very　fall　of　civil　freedom　is　partly　　ascribed　to　all　this；　since　the　new　learning　rested　on　obedience　to　　authority；　sacrificed　municipal　rights　to　Roman　law；　and　thereby　both　　sought　and　found　the　favour　of　the　despots。
  These　charges　will　occupy　us　now　and　then　at　a　later　stage　of　our　　inquiry；　when　we　shall　attempt　to　reduce　them　to　their　true　value；　and　　to　weigh　the　losses　against　the　gains　of　this　movement。　For　the　present　　we　must　confine　ourselves　to　showing　how　the　civilization　even　of　the　　vigorous　fourteenth　century　necessarily　prepared　the　way　for　the　　complete　victory　of　humanism；　and　how　precisely　the　greatest　　representatives　of　the　national　Italian　spirit　were　themselves　the　men　　who　opened　wide　the　gate　for　the　measureless　devotion　to　antiquity　in　　the　fifteenth　century。
  To　begin　with　Dante。　If　a　succession　of　men　of　equal　genius　had　　presided　over　Italian　culture；　whatever　elements　their　natures　might　　have　absorbed　from　the　antique；　they　still　could　not　fail　to　retain　a　　characteristic　and　strongly…marked　national　stamp。　But　neither　Italy　　nor　Western　Europe　produced　another　Dante；　and　he　was　and　remained　the　　man　who　first　thrust　antiquity　into　the　foreground　of　national　culture。　　In　the　'Divine　Comedy'　he　treats　the　ancient　and　the　Christian　worlds；　　not　indeed　as　of　equal　authority；　but　as　parallel　to　one　another。　Just　　as；　at　an　earlier　period　of　the　Middle　Ages；　types　and　anti…　types　were　　sought　in　the　history　of　the　Old　and　New　Testaments；　so　does　Dante　　constantly　bring　together　a　Christian　and　a　pagan　illustration　of　the　　same　fact。　It　must　be　remembered　that　the　Christian