braries　by　means　of　copies；　and　the　rapid　　multiplication　of　translations　from　the　Greek。
  Had　it　not　been　for　the　enthusiasm　of　a　few　collectors　of　that　age；　who　　shrank　from　no　effort　or　privation　in　their　researches；　we　should　　certainly　possess　only　a　small　part　of　the　literature；　especially　that　　of　the　Greeks；　which　is　now　in　our　hands。　Pope　Nicholas　V；　when　only　a　　simple　monk；　ran　deeply　into　debt　through　buying　manuscripts　or　having　　them　copied。　Even　then　he　made　no　secret　of　his　passion　for　the　two　　great　interests　of　the　Renaissance；　books　and　buildings。　As　Pope　he　　kept　his　word。　Copyists　wrote　and　spies　searched　for　him　through　half　　the　world。　Perotto　received　500　ducats　for　the　Latin　translation　of　　Polybius；　Guarino；　1；000　gold　florins　for　that　of　Strabo；　and　he　would　　have　been　paid　500　more　but　for　the　death　of　the　Pope。　Filelfo　was　to　　have　received　10；000　gold　florins　for　a　metrical　translation　of　Homer；　　and　was　only　prevented　by　the　Pope's　death　from　coming　from　Milan　to　　Rome。　Nicholas　left　a　collection　of　5；000　or；　according　to　another　way　　of　calculating；　of　6；000　volumes；　for　the　use　of　the　members　of　the　　Curia；　which　became　the　foundation　of　the　library　of　the　Vatican。　It　　was　to　be　preserved　in　the　palace　itself；　as　its　noblest　ornament；　the　　library　of　Ptolemy　Philadelphus　at　Alexandria。　When　the　plague　（1450）　　drove　him　and　his　court　to　Fabriano；　whence　then；　as　now；　the　best　　paper　was　procured；　he　took　his　translators　and　compilers　with　him；　　that　he　might　run　no　risk　of　losing　them。
  The　Florentine　Niccolo　Niccoli；　a　member　of　that　accomplished　circle　of　　friends　which　surrounded　the　elder　Cosimo　de'　Medici；　spent　his　whole　　fortune　in　buying　books。　At　last；　when　his　money　was　all　gone；　the　　Medici　put　their　purse　at　his　disposal　for　any　sum　which　his　purpose　　might　require。　We　owe　to　him　the　later　books　of　Ammianus　Marcellinus；　　the　'De　Oratore'　of　Cicero；　and　other　works；　he　persuaded　Cosimo　to　buy　　the　best　manuscript　of　Pliny　from　a　monastery　at　Lubeck。　With　noble　　confidence　he　lent　his　books　to　those　who　asked　for　them；　allowed　all　　comers　to　study　them　in　his　own　house；　and　was　ready　to　converse　with　　the　students　on　what　they　had　read。　His　collection　of　800　volumes；　　valued　at　6；000　gold　florins；　passed　after　his　death；　through　Cosimo's　　intervention；　to　the　monastery　of　San　Marco；　on　the　condition　that　it　　should　be　accessible　to　the　public。
  Of　the　two　great　book…finders；　Guarino　and　Poggio；　the　latter；　on　the　　occasion　of　the　Council　of　Constance　and　acting　partly　as　the　agent　of　　Niccoli；　searched　industriously　among　the　abbeys　of　South　Germany。　He　　there　discovered　six　orations　of　Cicero；　and　the　first　complete　　Quintilian；　that　of　St。　Gallen；　now　at　Zurich；　in　thirty…two　days　he　is　　said　to　have　copied　the　whole　of　it　in　a　beautiful　handwriting。　He　was　　able　to　make　important　additions　to　Silius　Italicus；　Manilius；　　Lucretius；　Valerius　Flaccus；　Asconius　Pedianus；　Columella；　Celsus；　　Aulus　Gellius；　Statius；　and　others；　and　with　the　help　of　Leonardo　　Aretino　he　unearthed　the　last　twelve　comedies　of　Plautus；　as　well　as　　the　Verrine　orations。
  The　famous　Greek；　Cardinal　Bessarion；　in　whom　patriotism　was　mingled　　with　a　zeal　for　letters；　collected；　at　a　great　sacrifice；　600　　manuscripts　of　pagan　and　Christian　authors。　He　then　looked　round　for　　some　receptacle　where　they　could　safely　lie　until　his　unhappy　country；　　if　she　ever　regained　her　freedom；　could　reclaim　her　lost　literature。　　The　Venetian　government　declared　itself　ready　to　erect　a　suitable　　building；　and　to　this　day　the　Biblioteca　Marciana　retains　a　part　of　　these　treasures。
  The　formation　of　the　celebrated　Medicean　library　has　a　history　of　its　　own；　into　which　we　cannot　here　enter。　The　chief　collector　for　Lorenzo　　il　Magnifico　was　Johannes　Lascaris。　It　is　well　known　that　the　　collection；　after　the　plundering　in　the　year　1494；　had　to　be　recovered　　piecemeal　by　the　Cardinal　Giovanni　Medici；　afterwards　Leo　X。
  The　library　of　Urbino；　now　in　the　Vatican；　was　wholly　the　work　of　the　　great　Federigo　of　Montefeltro。　As　a　boy　he　had　begun　to　collect；　in　　after　years　he　kept　thirty　or　forty　'scrittori'　employed　in　various　　places；　and　spent　in　the　course　of　time　no　less　than　30；000　ducats　on　　the　collection。　It　was　systematically　extended　and　completed；　chiefly　　by　the　help　of　Vespasiano；　and　his　account　of　it　forms　an　ideal　picture　　of　a　library　of　the　Renaissance。　At　Urbino　there　were　catalogues　of　the　　libraries　of　the　Vatican；　of　St。　Mark　at　Florence；　of　the　Visconti　at　　Pavia；　and　even　of　the　library　at　Oxford。　It　was　noted　with　pride　that　　in　richness　and　completeness　none　could　rival　Urbino。　Theology　and　the　　Middle　Ages　were　perhaps　most　fully　represented。　There　was　a　complete　　Thomas　Aquinas；　a　complete　Albertus　Magnus；　a　complete　Bonaventura。　The　　collection；　however；　was　a　many…sided　one；　and　included　every　work　on　　medicine　which　was　then　to　be　had。　Among　the　'moderns'　the　great　　writers　of　the　fourteenth　centuryDante　and　Boccaccio；　with　their　　complete　worksoccupied　the　first　place。　Then　followed　twenty…five　　select　humanists；　invariably　with　both　their　Latin　and　Italian　writings　　and　with　all　their　translations。　Among　the　Greek　manuscripts　the　　Fathers　of　the　Church　far　outnumbered　the　rest；　yet　in　the　list　of　the　　classics　we　find　all　the　works　of　Sophocles；　all　of　Pindar；　and　all　of　　Menander。　The　last　codex　must　have　quickly　disappeared　from　Urbino；　　else　the　philologists　would　have　soon　edited　it。
  We　have；　further；　a　good　deal　of　information　as　to　the　way　in　which　　manuscripts　and　libraries　were　multiplied。　The　purchase　of　an　ancient　　manuscript；　which　contained　a　rare；　or　the　only　complete；　or　the　only　　existing　text　of　an　old　writer；　was　naturally　a　lucky　accident　of　which　　we　need　take　no　further　account。　Among　the　professional　copyists　those　　who　understood　Greek　took　the　highest　place；　and　it　was　they　especially　　who　bore　the　honorable　name　of　'scrittori。'　Their　number　was　always　　limited；　and　the　pay　they　received　very　large。　The　rest；　simply　called　　'copisti；'　were　partly　mere　clerks　who　made　their　living　by　such　work；　　partly　schoolmasters　and　needy　men　of　learning；　who　desired　an　addition　　to　their　income。　The　copyists　at　Rome　in　the　time　of　Nicholas　V　were　　mostly　Germans　or　Frenchmen'barbarians'　as　the　Italian　humanists　　called　them；　probably　men　who　were　in　search　of　favours　at　the　papal　　court；　and　who　kept　themselves　alive　meanwhile　by　this　means。　When　　Cosimo　de'　Medici　was　in　a　hurry　to　form　a　library　for　his　favorite　　foundation；　the　Badia　below　Fiesole；　he　sent　for　Vespasiano；　and　　received　from　him　the　advice　to　give　up　all　thoughts　of　purchasing　　books；　since　those　which　were　worth　getting　could　not　be　had　easily；　　but　rather　to　make　use　of　the　copyists；　whereupon　Cosimo　bargained　to　　pay　him　so　much　a　day；　and　Vespasiano；　with　forty…five　writers　under　　him；　delivered　200　volumes　in　twenty…two　months。　The　catalogue　of　the　　works　to　be　copied　was　sent　to　Cosimo　by　Nicholas　V；　who　wrote　it　with　　his　own　hand。　Ecclesiastical　literature　and　the　books　needed　for　the　　choral　services　naturally　held　the　chief　place　in　the　list。
  The　handwriting　was　that　beautiful　modern　Italian　which　was　already　in　　use　in　the　preceding　century；　and　which　makes　the　sight　of　one　of　the　　books　of　that　time　a　pleasure。　Pope　Nicholas　V；　Poggio；　Gianozzo　　Manetti；　Niccolo　Niccoli；　and　other　distinguished　scholars；　themselves　　wrote　a　beautiful　hand；　and　desired　and　tolerated　none　other。　The　　decorative　adjuncts；　even　when　miniatures　formed　no　part　of　them；　were　　full　of　taste；　as　may　be　seen　especially　in　the　Laurentian　manuscripts；　　with　the　light　and　graceful　scrolls　which　begin　and　end　the　lines。　The　　material　used　to　write　on；　when　the　work　was　ordered　by　great　or　　wealthy　people；　was　always　parchment；　the　binding；　both　in　the　Vatican　　and　at　Urbino；　was　a　uniform　crimson　velvet　with　silver　clasps。　Where　　there　was　so　much　care　to　show　honour　to　the　contents　of　a　book　by　the　　beauty　of　its　outward　form；　it　is　intelligible　that　the　sudden　　appearance　of　printed　books　was　greeted　at　first　with　anything　but　　favour。　Federigo　of　Urbino　'would　have　been　ashamed　to　own　a　printed　　book。'
  But　the　weary　copyistsnot　those　who　lived　by　the　trade；　but　the　many　　who　were　forced　to　copy　a　book　in　order　to　have　itrejoiced　at　the　　German　invention。　It　was　soon　applied　in　Italy　to　the　multiplication　　first　of　the　Latin　and　then　of　the　Greek　authors；　and　for　a　long　period　　nowhere　but　in　Italy；　yet　it　spread　with　by　no　means　the　rapidity　which　　might　have　been　expected　from　the　general　enthusiasm　for　these　works。　　After　a　while　the　modern　relation　between　author　and　publisher　began　to　　develop　itself；　and　under　Alexander　VI；　when　it　was　no　longer　easy　to　　destroy　a　book；　as　Cosimo　could　make　Filelfo　promise　to　do；　the　　prohibitive　censorship　made　its　appearance。
  The　growth　of　textual　criticism　which　accompanied　the　advancing　study　　of　languages　and　antiquity　belongs　as　little　to　the　subject　of　this　　book　as　the　history　of　scholarship　in　general。　We　are　here　occupied；　　not　with　the　learning　of　the　Italians　in　itself；　but　with　the　　reproduction　of　antiquity　in　literature　and　life。　One　word　more　on　the　　studies　themselves　may　still