he　physical　and　　intellectual　world。　It　needed　a　guide；　and　found　one　in　the　ancient　　civilization；　with　its　wealth　of　truth　and　knowledge　in　every　spiritual　　interest。　Both　the　form　and　the　substance　of　this　civilization　were　　adopted　with　admiring　gratitude；　it　became　the　chief　part　of　the　　culture　of　the　age。　The　general　condition　of　the　country　was　favourable　　to　this　transformation。　The　medieval　empire；　since　the　fall　of　the　　Hohenstaufen；　had　either　renounced；　or　was　unable　to　make　good；　its　　claims　on　Italy。　The　Popes　had　migrated　to　Avignon。　Most　of　the　　political　powers　actually　existing　owed　their　origin　to　violent　and　　illegitimate　means。　The　spirit　of　the　people；　now　awakened　to　self…　consciousness；　sought　for　some　new　and　stable　ideal　on　which　to　rest。　　And　thus　the　vision　of　the　world…wide　empire　of　Italy　and　Rome　so　　possessed　the　popular　mind　that　Cola　di　Rienzi　could　actually　attempt　　to　put　it　in　practice。　The　conception　he　formed　of　his　task；　　particularly　when　tribune　for　the　first　time；　could　only　end　in　some　　extravagant　comedy；　nevertheless；　the　memory　of　ancient　Rome　was　no　　slight　support　to　the　national　sentiment。　Armed　afresh　with　its　　culture；　the　Italian　soon　felt　himself　in　truth　citizen　of　the　most　　advanced　nation　in　the　world。
  It　is　now　our　task　to　sketch　this　spiritual　movement；　not　indeed　in　all　　its　fullness；　but　in　its　most　salient　features；　and　especially　in　its　　first　beginnings。
  The　Ruins　of　Rome
  Rome　itself；　the　city　of　ruins；　now　became　the　object　of　a　holly　　different　sort　of　piety　from　that　of　the　time　when　the　'Mirabilia　Roma'　　and　the　collection　of　William　of　Malmesbury　ere　composed。　The　　imaginations　of　the　devout　pilgrim；　or　of　the　seeker　after　marvels　and　　treasures；　are　supplanted　in　contemporary　records　by　the　interests　of　　the　patriot　and　the　historian。　In　this　sense　we　must　understand　Dante's　　words；　that　the　stones　of　the　walls　of　Rome　deserve　reverence；　and　that　　the　ground　on　which　the　city　is　built　is　more　worthy　than　men　say。　The　　jubilees；　incessant　as　they　were；　have　scarcely　left　a　single　devout　　record　in　literature　properly　so　called。　The　best　thing　that　Giovanni　　Villani　brought　back　from　the　jubilee　of　the　year　1300　was　the　　resolution　to　write　his　history　which　bad　been　awakened　in　him　by　the　　sight　of　the　ruins　of　Rome。　Petrarch　gives　evidence　of　a　taste　divided　　between　classical　and　Christian　antiquity。　He　tells　us　how　often　with　　Giovanni　Colonna　he　ascended　the　mighty　vaults　of　the　Baths　of　　Diocletian；　and　there　in　the　transparent　air；　amid　the　wide　silence　　with　the　broad　panorama　stretching　far　around　them；　they　spoke；　not　of　　business　or　political　affairs；　but　of　the　history　which　the　ruins　　beneath　their　feet　suggested；　Petrarch　appearing　in　these　dialogues　as　　the　partisan　of　classical；　Giovanni　of　Christian　antiquity；　then　they　　would　discourse　of　philosophy　and　of　the　inventors　of　the　arts。　How　　often　since　that　time；　down　to　the　days　of　Gibbon　and　Niebuhr；　have　the　　same　ruins　stirred　men's　minds　to　the　same　reflections！
  This　double　current　of　feeling　is　also　recognizable　in　the　'Dittamondo'　　of　Fazio　degli　Uberti；　composed　about　the　year　1360a　description　of　　visionary　travels；　in　which　the　author　is　accompanied　by　the　old　　geographer　Solinus；　as　Dante　was　by　Virgil。　They　visit　Bari　in　memory　　of　St。　Nicholas；　and　Monte　Gargano　of　the　archangel　Michael；　and　in　　Rome　the　legends　of　Aracoeli　and　of　Santa　Maria　in　Trastevere　are　　mentioned。　Still；　the　pagan　splendor　of　ancient　Rome　unmistakably　　exercises　a　greater　charm　upon　them。　A　venerable　matron　in　torn　　garmentsRome　herself　is　meanttells　them　of　the　glorious　past；　and　　gives　them　a　minute　description　of　the　old　triumphs；　she　then　leads　the　　strangers　through　the　city；　and　points　out　to　them　the　seven　hills　and　　many　of　the　chief　ruins'che　comprender　potrai；　quanto　fui　bella。'
  Unfortunately　this　Rome　of　the　schismatic　and　Avignonese　popes　was　no　　longer；　in　respect　of　classical　remains；　what　it　had　been　some　　generations　earlier。　The　destruction　of　140　fortified　houses　of　the　　Roman　nobles　by　the　senator　Brancaleone　in　1257　must　have　wholly　　altered　the　character　of　the　most　important　buildings　then　standing：　　for　the　nobles　had　no　doubt　ensconced　themselves　in　the　loftiest　and　　best…preserved　of　the　ruins。　Nevertheless；　far　more　was　left　than　we　　now　find；　and　probably　many　of　the　remains　had　still　their　marble　　incrustation；　their　pillared　entrances；　and　their　other　ornaments；　　where　we　now　see　nothing　but　the　skeleton　of　brickwork。　In　this　state　　of　things；　the　first　beginnings　of　a　topographical　study　of　the　old　　city　were　made。
  In　Poggio's　walks　through　Rome　the　study　of　the　remains　themselves　is　　for　the　first　time　more　intimately　combined　with　that　of　the　ancient　　authors　and　inscriptionsthe　latter　he　sought　out　from　among　all　the　　vegetation　in　which　they　were　imbeddedthe　writer's　imagination　is　　severely　restrained；　and　the　memories　of　Christian　Rome　carefully　　excluded。　The　only　pity　is　that　Poggio's　work　was　not　fuller　and　was　　not　illustrated　with　sketches。　Far　more　was　left　in　his　time　than　was　　found　by　Raphael　eighty　years　later。　He　saw　the　tomb　of　Caecilia　　Metella　and　the　columns　in　front　of　one　of　the　temples　on　the　slope　of　　the　Capitol；　first　in　full　preservation；　and　then　afterwards　half　　destroyed；　owing　to　that　unfortunate　quality　which　marble　possesses　of　　being　easily　burnt　into　lime。　A　vast　colonnade　near　the　Minerva　fell　　piecemeal　a　victim　to　the　same　fate。　A　witness　in　the　year　1443　tells　　us　that　this　manufacture　of　lime　still　went　on：　'which　is　a　shame；　for　　the　new　buildings　are　pitiful；　and　the　beauty　of　Rome　is　in　its　ruins。'　　The　inhabitants　of　that　day；　in　their　peasant's　cloaks　and　boots；　　looked　to　foreigners　like　cowherds；　and　in　fact　the　cattle　were　　pastured　in　the　city　up　to　the　Banchi。　The　only　social　gatherings　were　　the　services　at　church；　on　which　occasion　it　was　possible　also　to　get　a　　sight　of　the　beautiful　women。
  In　the　last　years　of　Eugenius　IV　（d。　1447）　Biondus　of　Forli　wrote　his　　'Roma　Instaurata；'　making　use　of　Frontinus　and　of　the　old　'Libri　　Regionali；'　as　well　as；　it　seems；　of　Anastasius。　His　object　is　not　only　　the　description　of　what　existed；　but　still　more　the　recovery　of　what　　was　lost。　In　accordance　with　the　dedication　to　the　Pope；　he　consoles　　himself　for　the　general　ruin　by　the　thought　of　the　precious　relics　of　　the　saints　in　which　Rome　was　so　rich。
  With　Nicholas　V　（1447…1455）　that　new　monumental　spirit　which　was　　distinctive　of　the　age　of　the　Renaissance　appeared　on　the　papal　throne。　　The　new　passion　for　embellishing　the　city　brought　with　it　on　the　one　　hand　a　fresh　danger　for　the　ruins；　on　the　other　a　respect　for　them；　as　　forming　one　of　Rome's　claims　to　distinction。　Pius　II　was　wholly　　possessed　by　antiquarian　enthusiasm；　and　if　he　speaks　little　of　the　　antiquities　of　Rome；　he　closely　studied　those　of　all　other　parts　of　　Italy；　and　was　the　first　to　know　and　describe　accurately　the　remains　　which　abounded　in　the　districts　for　miles　around　the　capital。　It　is　　true　that；　both　as　priest　and　cosmographer；　he　was　interested　alike　in　　classical　and　Christian　monuments　and　in　the　marvels　of　nature。　Or　was　　he　doing　violence　to　himself　when　he　wrote　that　Nola　was　more　highly　　honoured　by　the　memory　of　St。　Paulinus　than　by　all　its　classical　　reminiscences　and　by　the　heroic　struggle　of　Marcellus？　Not；　indeed；　　that　his　faith　in　relics　was　assumed；　but　his　mind　was　evidently　rather　　disposed　to　an　inquiring　interest　in　nature　and　antiquity；　to　a　zeal　　for　monumental　works；　to　a　keen　and　delicate　observation　of　human　life。　　In　the　last　years　of　his　Papacy；　afflicted　with　the　gout　and　yet　in　the　　most　cheerful　mood；　he　was　borne　in　his　litter　over　hill　and　dale　to　　Tusculum；　Alba；　Tibur；　Ostia；　Falerii；　and　Otriculum；　and　whatever　he　　saw　he　noted　down。　He　followed　the　Roman　roads　and　aqueducts；　and　tried　　to　fix　the　boundaries　of　the　old　tribes　which　had　dwelt　round　the　city。　　On　an　excursion　to　Tivoli　with　the　great　Federigo　of　Urbino　the　time　　was　happily　spent　in　talk　on　the　military　system　of　the　ancients；　and　　particularly　on　the　Trojan　war。　Even　on　his　journey　to　the　Congress　of　　Mantua　（1459）　he　searched；　though　unsuccessfully；　for　the　labyrinth　of　　Clusium　mentioned　by　Pliny；　and　visited　the　so…called　villa　of　Virgil　　on　the　Mincio。　That　such　a　Pope　should　demand　a　classical　Latin　style　　from　his　abbreviators；　is　no　more　than　might　be　expected。　It　was　he　　who；　in　the　war　with　Naples；　granted　an　amnesty　to　the　men　of　Arpinum；　　as　countrymen　of　Cicero　and　Marius；　after　whom　many　of　them　were　named。　　It　was　to　him　alone；　as　both　judge　and　patron；　that　Blondus　could　　dedicate　his　'Roma　Triumphans；'　the　first　great　attempt　at　a　complete　　exposition　of　Roman　antiquity。
  Nor　was　the　enthusiasm　for　the　classical　past　of　Italy　confined　at　this　　period　to　the　capital。　Boccaccio　had　already　called　the　vast　ruins　of　　Baia　'old　walls；　yet　new　for　modern　spirits'；　and　since　his　time　they　　were　held　to　be　the　most　interesting　sight　near　Naples。　Collections　of　　antiquities　of　all　sorts　now　became　common。　Ciriaco　of　Ancona　（d。　1457）　　travelled　not　only　through　Italy；　but　through　other　countries　of　the　　old　Orbis　terrarum；　and　brought　back