ince　should　have　are　present　in　you；　and　all　men　would　think　so；　were　　it　not　that　the　acts　of　violence　inevitable　at　the　beginning　of　all　　undertakings　cause　you　to　appear　a　trifle　rough　_（aspro）。'
  _
  It　has　often　been　noticed　as　something　singular　that　Aretino　only　　reviled　the　world；　and　not　God　also。　The　religious　belief　of　a　man　who　　lived　as　he　did　is　a　matter　of　perfect　indifference；　as　are　also　the　　edifying　writings　which　he　composed　for　reasons　of　his　own。　It　is　in　　fact　hard　to　say　why　he　should　have　been　a　blasphemer。　He　was　no　　professor；　or　theoretical　thinker　or　writer；　and　he　could　extort　no　　money　from　God　by　threats　or　flattery；　and　was　consequently　never　　goaded　into　blasphemy　by　a　refusal。　A　man　like　him　does　not　take　　trouble　for　nothing。
  It　is　a　good　sign　for　the　present　spirit　of　Italy　that　such　a　character　　and　such　a　career　have　become　a　thousand　times　impossible。　But　　historical　criticism　will　always　find　in　Aretino　an　important　study。
  Part　Three
  The　Revival　of　Antiquity
  Introductory
  Now　that　this　point　in　our　historical　view　of　Italian　civilization　has　　been　reached；　it　is　time　to　speak　of　the　influence　of　antiquity；　the　　'new　birth'　of　which　has　been　one…sidedly　chosen　as　the　name　to　sum　up　　the　whole　period。　The　conditions　which　have　been　hitherto　described　　would　have　sufficed；　apart　from　antiquity；　to　upturn　and　to　mature　the　　national　mind；　and　most　of　the　intellectual　tendencies　which　yet　remain　　to　be　noticed　would　be　conceivable　without　it。　But　both　what　has　gone　　before　and　what　we　have　still　to　discuss　are　colored　in　a　thousand　ways　　by　the　influence　of　the　ancient　world；　and　though　the　essence　of　the　　phenomena　might　still　have　been　the　same　without　the　classical　revival；　　it　is　only　with　and　through　this　revival　that　they　are　actually　　manifested　to　us。　The　Renaissance　would　not　have　been　the　process　of　　world…wide　significance　which　it　is；　if　its　elements　could　be　so　easily　　separated　from　one　another。　We　must　insist　upon　it；　as　one　of　the　chief　　propositions　of　this　book；　that　it　was　not　the　revival　of　antiquity　　alone；　but　its　union　with　the　genius　of　the　Italian　people；　which　　achieved　the　conquest　of　the　western　world。　The　amount　of　independence　　which　the　national　spirit　maintained　in　this　union　varied　according　to　　circumstances。　In　the　modern　Latin　literature　of　the　period；　it　is　very　　small；　while　in　the　visual　arts；　as　well　as　in　other　spheres；　it　is　　remarkably　great；　and　hence　the　alliance　between　two　distant　epochs　in　　the　civilization　of　the　same　people；　because　concluded　on　equal　terms；　　proved　justifiable　and　fruitful。　The　rest　of　Europe　was　free　either　to　　repel　or　else　partly　or　wholly　to　accept　the　mighty　impulse　which　came　　forth　from　Italy。　Where　the　latter　was　the　case　we　may　as　well　be　　spared　the　complaints　over　the　early　decay　of　mediaeval　faith　and　　civilization。　Had　these　been　strong　enough　to　hold　their　ground；　they　　would　be　alive　to　this　day。　If　those　elegiac　natures　which　long　to　see　　them　return　could　pass　but　one　hour　in　the　midst　of　them；　they　would　　gasp　to　be　back　in　modern　air。　That　in　a　great　historical　process　of　　this　kind　flowers　of　exquisite　beauty　may　perish；　without　being　made　　immortal　in　poetry　or　tradition；　is　undoubtedly　true；　nevertheless；　we　　cannot　wish　the　process　undone。　The　general　result　of　it　consists　in　　thisthat　by　the　side　of　the　Church　which　had　hitherto　held　the　　countries　of　the　West　together　（though　it　was　unable　to　do　so　much　　longer）　there　arose　a　new　spiritual　influence　which；　spreading　itself　　abroad　from　Italy；　became　the　breath　of　life　for　all　the　more　　instructed　minds　in　Europe。　The　worst　that　can　be　said　of　the　movement　　is；　that　it　was　antipopular；　that　through　it　Europe　became　for　the　　first　time　sharply　divided　into　the　cultivated　and　uncultivated　　classes。　The　reproach　will　appear　groundless　when　we　reflect　that　even　　now　the　fact；　though　clearly　recognized；　cannot　be　altered。　The　　separation；　too；　is　by　no　means　so　cruel　and　absolute　in　Italy　as　　elsewhere。　The　most　artistic　of　her　poets；　Tasso；　is　in　the　hands　of　　even　the　poorest。
  The　civilization　of　Greece　and　Rome；　which；　ever　since　the　fourteenth　　century；　obtained　so　powerful　a　hold　on　Italian　life；　as　the　source　and　　basis　of　culture；　as　the　object　and　ideal　of　existence；　partly　also　as　　an　avowed　reaction　against　preceding　tendenciesthis　civilization　had　　long　been　exerting　a　partial　influence　on　mediaeval　Europe；　even　beyond　　the　boundaries　of　Italy。　The　culture　of　which　Charlemagne　was　a　　representative　was；　in　face　of　the　barbarism　of　the　seventh　and　eighth　　centuries；　essentially　a　Renaissance；　and　could　appear　under　no　other　　form。　Just　as　in　the　Romanesque　architecture　of　the　North；　beside　the　　general　outlines　inherited　from　antiquity；　remarkable　direct　imitations　　of　the　antique　also　occur；　so　too　monastic　scholarship　had　not　only　　gradually　absorbed　an　immense　mass　of　materials　from　Roman　writers；　but　　the　style　of　it；　from　the　days　of　Einhard　onwards；　shows　traces　of　　conscious　imitation。
  But　the　resuscitation　of　antiquity　took　a　different　form　in　Italy　from　　that　which　it　assumed　in　the　North。　The　wave　of　barbarism　had　scarcely　　gone　by　before　the　people；　in　whom　the　former　life　was　but　half　　effaced；　showed　a　consciousness　of　its　past　and　a　wish　to　reproduce　it。　　Elsewhere　in　Europe　men　deliberately　and　with　reflection　borrowed　this　　or　the　other　element　of　classical　civilization；　in　Italy　the　sympathies　　both　of　the　learned　and　of　the　people　were　naturally　engaged　on　the　　side　of　antiquity　as　a　whole；　which　stood　to　them　as　a　symbol　of　past　　greatness。　The　Latin　language；　too；　was　easy　to　an　Italian；　and　the　　numerous　monuments　and　documents　in　which　the　country　abounded　　facilitated　a　return　to　the　past。　With　this　tendency　other　elements　the　popular　character　which　time　had　now　greatly　modified；　the　　political　institutions　imported　by　the　Lombards　from　Germany；　chivalry　　and　other　northern　forms　of　civilization；　and　the　influence　of　religion　　and　the　Churchcombined　to　produce　the　modern　Italian　spirit；　which　　was　destined　to　serve　as　the　model　and　ideal　for　the　whole　western　　world。
  How　antiquity　influenced　the　visual　arts；　as　soon　as　the　flood　of　　barbarism　had　subsided；　is　clearly　shown　in　the　Tuscan　buildings　of　the　　twelfth　and　in　the　sculptures　of　the　thirteenth　centuries。　In　poetry；　　too；　there　will　appear　no　want　of　similar　analogies　to　those　who　hold　　that　the　greatest　Latin　poet　of　the　twelfth　century；　the　writer　who　　struck　the　keynote　of　a　whole　class　of　Latin　poems；　was　an　Italian。　We　　mean　the　author　of　the　best　pieces　in　the　so…called　'Carmina　Burana。'　A　　frank　enjoyment　of　life　and　its　pleasures；　as　whose　patrons　the　gods　of　　heathendom　are　invoked；　while　Catos　and　Scipios　hold　the　place　of　the　　saints　and　heroes　of　Christianity；　flows　in　full　current　through　the　　rhymed　verses。　Reading　them　through　at　a　stretch；　we　can　scarcely　help　　coming　to　the　conclusion　that　an　Italian；　probably　a　Lombard；　is　　speaking；　in　fact；　there　are　positive　grounds　for　thinking　so。　To　a　　certain　degree　these　Latin　poems　of　the　'Clerici　vagantes'　of　the　　twelfth　century；　with　all　their　remarkable　frivolity；　are；　doubtless；　a　　product　in　which　the　whole　of　Europe　had　a　share；　but　the　writer　of　the　　song　'De　Phyllide　et　Flora'　and　the　'Aestuans　Interius'　can　have　been　a　　northerner　as　little　as　the　polished　Epicurean　observer　to　whom　we　owe　　'Dum　Diana　vitrea　sero　lampas　oritur。'　Here；　in　truth；　is　a　　reproduction　of　the　whole　ancient　view　of　life；　which　is　all　the　more　　striking　from　the　medieval　form　of　the　verse　in　which　it　is　set　forth。　　There　are　many　works　of　this　and　the　following　centuries；　in　which　a　　careful　imitation　of　the　antique　appears　both　in　the　hexameter　and　　pentameter　of　the　meter　and　in　the　classical；　often　myth…　ological；　　character　of　the　subject；　and　which　yet　have　not　anything　like　the　same　　spirit　of　antiquity　about　them。　In　the　hexametric　chronicles　and　other　　works　of　Guglielmus　Apuliensis　and　his　successors　（from　about　1100）；　we　　find　frequent　trace　of　a　diligent　study　of　Virgil；　Ovid；　Lucan；　　Statius；　and　Claudian；　but　this　classical　form　is；　after　all；　a　mere　　matter　of　archaeology；　as　is　the　classical　subject　in　compilers　like　　Vincent　of　Beauvais；　or　in　the　mythological　and　allegorical　writer；　　Alanus　ab　Insulis。　The　Renaissance；　however；　is　not　a　fragmentary　　imitation　or　compilation；　but　a　new　birth；　and　the　signs　of　this　are　　visible　in　the　poems　of　the　unknown　'Clericus'　of　the　twelfth　century。
  But　the　great　and　general　enthusiasm　of　the　Italians　for　Classical　　antiquity　did　not　display　itself　before　the　fourteenth　century。　For　　this　a　development　of　civic　life　was　required；　which　took　place　only　in　　Italy；　and　there　not　till　then。　It　was　needful　that　noble　and　burgher　　should　first　learn　to　dwell　together　on　equal　terms；　and　that　a　social　　world　should　arise　which　felt　the　want　of　culture；　and　had　the　leisure　　and　the　means　to　obtain　it。　But　culture；　as　soon　as　it　freed　itself　　from　the　fantastic　bonds　of　the　Middle　Ages；　could　not　at　once　and　　without　help　find　its　way　to　the　understanding　of　the　physical　and　　intellectual　world。　It　needed　a　guide；　and　found　one　in　the　ancient　　civilization；