esiastical　State；　and　the　conditions　under　which　alone　it　could　　continue；　were　a　permanent　obstacle　to　national　unity；　an　obstacle　　whose　removal　seemed　hopeless。　When；　therefore；　in　the　political　　intercourse　of　the　fifteenth　century；　the　common　fatherland　is　　sometimes　emphatically　named；　it　is　done　in　most　cases　to　annoy　some　　other　Italian　State。　But　those　deeply　serious　and　sorrowful　appeals　to　　national　sentiment　were　not　heard　again　till　later；　when　the　time　for　　unity　had　gone　by；　when　the　country　was　inundated　with　Frenchmen　and　　Spaniards。　The　sense　of　local　patriotism　may　be　said　in　some　measure　to　　have　taken　the　place　of　this　feeling；　though　it　was　but　a　poor　　equivalent　for　it。
  Part　Two
  THE　DEVELOPMENT　OF　THE　INDIVIDUAL
  Personality
  In　the　character　of　these　States；　whether　republics　or　despotisms；　　lies；　not　the　only；　but　the　chief　reason　for　the　early　development　of　　the　Italian。　To　this　it　is　due　that　he　was　the　firstborn　among　the　sons　　of　modern　Europe。
  In　the　Middle　Ages　both　sides　of　human　consciousnessthat　which　was　　turned　within　as　that　which　was　turned　without　lay　dreaming　or　half　　awake　beneath　a　common　veil。　The　veil　was　woven　of　faith；　illusion；　and　　childish　prepossession；　through　which　the　world　and　history　were　seen　　clad　in　strange　hues。　Man　was　conscious　of　himself　only　as　a　member　of　　a　race；　people；　party；　family；　or　corporationonly　through　some　　general　category。　In　Italy　this　veil　first　melted　into　air；　an　　_objective　_treatment　and　consideration　of　the　State　and　of　all　the　　things　of　this　world　became　possible。　The　subjective　side　at　the　same　　time　asserted　itself　with　corresponding　emphasis；　man　became　a　　spiritual　_individual；　_recognized　himself　as　such。　In　the　same　way　the　　Greek　had　once　distinguished　himself　from　the　barbarian；　and　the　Arab　　had　felt　himself　an　individual　at　a　time　when　other　Asiatics　knew　　themselves　only　as　members　of　a　race。　It　will　not　be　difficult　to　show　　that　this　result　was　due　above　all　to　the　political　circumstances　of　　Italy。
  In　far　earlier　times　we　can　here　and　there　detect　a　development　of　free　　personality　which　in　Northern　Europe　either　did　not　occur　at　all；　or　　could　not　display　itself　in　the　same　manner。　The　band　of　audacious　　wrongdoers　in　the　tenth　century　described　to　us　by　Liudprand；　some　of　　the　contemporaries　of　Gregory　VII　（for　example；　Benzo　of　Alba）；　and　a　　few　of　the　opponents　of　the　first　Hohenstaufen；　show　us　characters　of　　this　kind。　But　at　the　close　of　the　thirteenth　century　Italy　began　to　　swarm　with　individuality；　the　ban　laid　upon　human　personality　was　　dissolved；　and　a　thousand　figures　meet　us　each　in　its　own　special　shape　　and　dress。　Dante's　great　poem　would　have　been　impossible　in　any　other　　country　of　Europe；　if　only　for　the　reason　that　they　all　still　lay　under　　the　spell　of　race。　For　Italy　the　august　poet；　through　the　wealth　of　　individuality　which　he　set　forth；　was　the　most　national　herald　of　his　　time。　But　this　unfolding　of　the　treasures　of　human　nature　in　literature　　and　artthis　many…sided　representation　and　criticismwill　be　　discussed　in　separate　chapters；　here　we　have　to　deal　only　with　the　　psychological　fact　itself。　This　fact　appears　in　the　most　decisive　and　　unmistakable　form。　The　Italians　of　the　fourteenth　century　knew　little　　of　false　modesty　or　of　hypocrisy　in　any　shape；　not　one　of　them　was　　afraid　of　singularity；　of　being　and　seeming　unlike　his　neighbors。
  Despotism；　as　we　have　already　seen；　fostered　in　the　highest　degree　the　　individuality　not　only　of　the　tyrant　or　Condottiere　himself；　but　also　　of　the　men　whom　he　protected　or　used　as　his　toolsthe　secretary；　　minister；　poet；　and　companion。　These　people　were　forced　to　know　all　the　　inward　resources　of　their　own　nature；　passing　or　permanent；　and　their　　enjoyment　of　life　was　enhanced　and　concentrated　by　the　desire　to　obtain　　the　greatest　satisfaction　from　a　possibly　very　brief　period　of　power　　and　influence。
  But　even　the　subjects　whom　they　ruled　over　were　not　free　from　the　same　　impulse。　Leaving　out　of　account　those　who　wasted　their　lives　in　secret　　opposition　and　conspiracies；　we　speak　of　the　majority　who　were　content　　with　a　strictly　private　station；　like　most　of　the　urban　population　of　　the　Byzantine　empire　and　the　Mohammedan　States。　No　doubt　it　was　often　　hard　for　the　subjects　of　a　Visconti　to　maintain　the　dignity　of　their　　persons　and　families；　and　multitudes　must　have　lost　in　moral　character　　through　the　servitude　they　lived　under。　But　this　was　not　the　case　with　　regard　to　individuality；　for　political　impotence　does　not　hinder　the　　different　tendencies　and　manifestations　of　private　life　from　thriving　　in　the　fullest　vigor　and　variety。　Wealth　and　culture；　so　far　as　display　　and　rivalry　were　not　forbidden　to　them；　a　municipal　freedom　which　did　　not　cease　to　be　considerable；　and　a　Church　which；　unlike　that　of　the　　Byzantine　or　of　the　Mohammedan　world；　was　not　identical　with　the　State…　…all　these　conditions　undoubtedly　favored　the　growth　of　individual　　thought；　for　which　the　necessary　leisure　was　furnished　by　the　cessation　　of　party　conflicts。　The　private　man；　indifferent　to　politics；　and　　busied　partly　with　serious　pursuits；　partly　with　the　interests　of　a　　_dilettante；　_seems　to　have　been　first　fully　formed　in　these　despotisms　　of　the　fourteenth　century。　Documentary　evidence　cannot；　of　course；　be　　required　on　such　a　point。　The　novelists；　from　whom　we　might　expect　　information；　describe　to　us　oddities　in　plenty；　but　only　from　one　point　　of　view　and　in　so　far　as　the　needs　of　the　story　demand。　Their　scene；　　too；　lies　chiefly　in　the　republican　cities。
  In　the　latter；　circumstances　were　also；　but　in　another　way；　favourable　　to　the　growth　of　individual　character。　The　more　frequently　the　　governing　party　was　changed；　the　more　the　individual　was　led　to　make　　the　utmost　of　the　exercise　and　enjoyment　of　power。　The　statesmen　and　　popular　leaders；　especially　in　Florentine　history；　acquired　so　marked　a　　personal　character　that　we　can　scarcely　find；　even　exceptionally；　a　　parallel　to　them　in　contemporary　history；　hardly　even　in　Jacob　van　　Arteveldt。
  The　members　of　the　defeated　parties；　on　the　other　hand；　often　came　into　　a　position　like　that　of　the　subjects　of　the　despotic　States；　with　the　　difference　that　the　freedom　or　power　already　enjoyed；　and　in　some　cases　　the　hope　of　recovering　them；　gave　a　higher　energy　to　their　　individuality。　Among　these　men　of　involuntary　leisure　we　find；　for　　instance；　an　Agnolo　Pandolfini　（d。　1446）；　whose　work　on　domestic　　economy　is　the　first　complete　programme　of　a　developed　private　life。　　His　estimate　of　the　duties　of　the　individual　as　against　the　dangers　and　　thanklessness　of　public　life　is　in　its　way　a　true　monument　of　the　age。
  Banishment；　too；　has　this　effect　above　all；　that　it　either　wears　the　　exile　out　or　develops　whatever　is　greatest　in　him。　'In　all　our　more　　populous　cities；'　says　Gioviano　Pontano；　'we　see　a　crowd　of　people　who　　have　left　their　homes　of　their　own　free　will；　but　a　man　takes　his　　virtues　with　him　wherever　he　goes。'　And；　in　fact；　they　were　by　no　means　　only　men　who　had　been　actually　exiled；　but　thousands　left　their　native　　place　voluntarily；　be　cause　they　found　its　political　or　economic　　condition　intolerable。　The　Florentine　emigrants　at　Ferrara　and　the　　Lucchese　in　Venice　formed　whole　colonies　by　themselves。
  The　cosmopolitanism　which　grew　up　in　the　most　gifted　circles　is　in　　itself　a　high　stage　of　individualism。　Dante；　as　we　have　already　said；　　finds　a　new　home　in　the　language　and　culture　of　Italy；　but　goes　beyond　　even　this　in　the　words；　'My　country　is　the　whole　world。'　And　when　his　　recall　to　Florence　was　offered　him　on　unworthy　conditions；　he　wrote　　back：　'Can　I　not　everywhere　behold　the　light　of　the　sun　and　the　stars；　　everywhere　meditate　on　the　noblest　truths；　without　appearing　　ingloriously　and　shamefully　before　the　city　and　the　people？　Even　my　　bread　will　not　fail　me。'　The　artists　exult　no　less　defiantly　in　their　　freedom　from　the　constraints　of　fixed　residence。　'Only　he　who　has　　learned　everything；'　says　Ghiberti；'is　nowhere　a　stranger；　robbed　of　　his　fortune　and　without　friends；　he　is　yet　the　citizen　of　every　　country；　and　can　fearlessly　despise　the　changes　of　fortune。'　In　the　　same　strain　an　exiled　humanist　writes：　'Wherever　a　learned　man　fixes　　his　seat；　there　is　home。'
  An　acute　and　practiced　eye　might　be　able　to　trace；　step　by　step；　the　　increase　in　the　number　of　complete　men　during　the　fifteenth　century。　　Whether　they　had　before　them　as　a　conscious　object　the　harmonious　　development　of　their　spiritual　and　material　existence；　is　hard　to　say；　　but　several　of　them　attained　it；　so　far　as　is　consistent　with　the　　imperfection　of　all　that　is　earthly。　It　may　be　better　to　renounce　the　　attempt　at　an　estimate　of　the　share　which　fortune；　character；　and　　talent　had　in　the　life　of　Lorenzo　il　Magnifico。　But　look　at　a　　personality　like　that　of　Ariosto；　especially　as　shown　in　his　satires。　　In　what　harmony　are　there　expressed　the　pride　of　the　man　and　the　poet；　　the　irony　with　which　he　treats　his　own　enjoyments；　the　most　delicate　　satire；　and　the　deepest　goodwill！
  When　this　impulse　to　the　highest　individual　development　was　combined　　with　a　powerful　and　varied　nature；　which　had　mastered　all　the　element