on；　but　were　driven　back　by　the　Papal　forces。　The　　public　feeling；　too；　against　the　corruptions　of　the　hierarchy　had　of　　late　years　been　drawing　rapidly　to　a　head；　and　men　with　an　eye　for　the　　future；　like　the　younger　Pico　della　Mirandola；　called　urgently　for　　reform。　Meantime　Luther　had　already　appeared　upon　the　scene。
  Under　Adrian　VI　（1521…1523）；　the　few　and　timid　improvements；　carried　　out　in　the　face　of　the　great　German　Reformation；　came　too　late。　He　　could　do　little　more　than　proclaim　his　horror　of　the　course　which　　things　had　taken　hitherto；　of　simony；　nepotism；　prodigality；　　brigandage；　and　profligacy。　The　danger　from　the　side　of　the　Lutherans　　was　by　no　means　the　greatest；　an　acute　observer　from　Venice；　Girolamo　　Negro；　uttered　his　fears　that　a　speedy　and　terrible　disaster　would　　befall　the　city　of　Rome　itself。
  Under　Clement　VII　the　whole　horizon　of　Rome　was　filled　with　vapors；　　like　that　leaden　veil　which　the　sirocco　drew　over　the　Campagna；　and　　which　made　the　last　months　of　summer　so　deadly。　The　Pope　was　no　less　　detested　at　home　than　abroad。　Thoughtful　people　were　filled　with　　anxiety；　hermits　appeared　upon　the　streets　and　squares　of　Rome；　　foretelling　the　fate　of　Italy　and　of　the　world；　and　calling　the　Pope　by　　the　name　of　Antichrist；　the　faction　of　the　Colonna　raised　its　head　　defiantly；　the　indomitable　Cardinal　Pompeo　Colonna；　whose　mere　　existence　was　a　permanent　menace　to　the　Papacy；　ventured　to　surprise　　the　city　in　1526；　hoping　with　the　help　of　Charles　V；　to　become　Pope　　then　and　there；　as　soon　as　Clement　was　killed　or　captured。　It　was　no　　piece　of　good　fortune　for　Rome　that　the　latter　was　able　to　escape　to　　the　Castel　Sant'　Angelo；　and　the　fate　for　which　he　himself　was　reserved　　may　well　be　called　worse　than　death。　By　a　series　of　those　falsehoods　　which　only　the　powerful　can　venture　on；　but　which　bring　ruin　upon　the　　weak；　Clement　brought　about　the　advance　of　the　Germano…Spanish　army　　under　Bourbon　and　Frundsberg　（1527）。　It　is　certain　that　the　Cabinet　of　　Charles　V　intended　to　inflict　on　him　a　severe　castigation；　and　that　it　　could　not　calculate　beforehand　how　far　the　zeal　of　its　unpaid　hordes　　would　carry　them。　It　would　have　been　vain　to　attempt　to　enlist　men　in　　Germany　without　paying　any　bounty；　if　it　had　not　been　well　known　that　　Rome　was　the　object　of　the　expedition。　It　may　be　that　the　written　　orders　to　Bourbon　will　be　found　some　day　or　other；　and　it　is　not　　improbable　that　they　will　prove　to　be　worded　mildly。　But　historical　　criticism　will　not　allow　itself　to　be　led　astray。　The　Catholic　King　and　　Emperor　owed　it　to　his　luck　and　nothing　else　that　Pope　and　cardinals　　were　not　murdered　by　his　troops。　Had　this　happened；　no　sophistry　in　the　　world　could　clear　him　of　his　share　in　the　guilt。　The　massacre　of　　countless　people　of　less　consequence；　the　plunder　of　the　rest；　and　all　　the　horrors　of　torture　and　traffic　in　human　life；　show　clearly　enough　　what　was　possible　in　the　'Sacco　di　Roma。'
  Charles　seems　to　have　wished　to　bring　the　Pope；　who　had　fled　a　second　　time　to　the　Castel　Sant'　Angelo；　to　Naples；　after　extorting　from　him　　vast　sums　of　money；　and　Clement's　flight　to　Orvieto　must　have　happened　　without　any　connivance　on　the　part　of　Spain。　Whether　the　Emperor　ever　　thought　seriously　of　the　secularization　of　the　States　of　the　Church；　　for　which　every　body　was　quite　prepared；　and　whether　he　was　really　　dissuaded　from　it　by　the　representations　of　Henry　VIII　of　England；　will　　probably　never　be　made　clear。
  But　if　such　projects　really　existed；　they　cannot　have　lasted　long：　from　　the　devastated　city　arose　a　new　spirit　of　reform　both　in　Church　and　　State。　It　made　itself　felt　in　a　moment。　Cardinal　Sadoleto；　one　witness　　of　many；　thus　writes：　'If　through　our　suffering　a　satisfaction　is　made　　to　the　wrath　and　justice　of　God；　if　these　fearful　punishments　again　　open　the　way　to　better　laws　and　morals；　then　is　our　misfortune　perhaps　　not　of　the　greatest。。。。　What　belongs　to　God　He　will　take　care　of；　　before　us　lies　a　life　of　reformation；　which　no　violence　can　take　from　　us。　Let　us　so　rule　our　deeds　and　thoughts　as　to　seek　in　God　only　the　　true　glory　of　the　priesthood　and　our　own　true　greatness　and　power。'
  In　point　of　fact；　this　critical　year；　1527；　so　far　bore　fruit　that　the　　voices　of　serious　men　could　again　make　themselves　heard。　Rome　had　　suffered　too　much　to　return；　even　under　a　Paul　III；　to　the　gay　　corruption　of　Leo　X。
  The　Papacy；　too；　when　its　sufferings　became　so　great；　began　to　excite　a　　sympathy　half　religious　and　half　political。　The　kings　could　not　　tolerate　that　one　of　their　number　should　arrogate　to　himself　the　right　　of　Papal　gaoler；　and　concluded　（August　18；　1527）　the　Treaty　of　Amiens；　　one　of　the　objects　of　which　was　the　deliverance　of　Clement。　They　thus；　　at　all　events；　turned　to　their　own　account　the　unpopularity　which　the　　deeds　of　the　Imperial　troops　had　excited。　At　the　same　time　the　Emperor　　became　seriously　embarrassed；　even　in　Spain；　where　the　prelates　and　　grandees　never　saw　him　without　making　the　most　urgent　remonstrances。　　When　a　general　deputation　of　the　clergy　and　laity；　all　clothed　in　　mourning；　was　projected；　Charles；　fearing　that　troubles　might　arise　out　　of　it；　like　those　of　the　insurrection　quelled　a　few　years　before；　　forbade　the　scheme。　Not　only　did　he　not　dare　to　prolong　the　　maltreatment　of　the　Pope；　but　he　was　absolutely　compelled；　even　apart　　from　all　considerations　of　foreign　politics；　to　be　reconciled　with　the　　Papacy；　which　he　had　so　grievously　wounded。　For　the　temper　of　the　　German　people；　which　certainly　pointed　to　a　different　course；　seemed　to　　him；　like　German　affairs　generally；　to　afford　no　foundation　for　a　　policy。　It　is　possible；　too；　as　a　Venetian　maintains；　that　the　memory　　of　the　sack　of　Rome　lay　heavy　on　his　conscience；　and　tended　to　hasten　　that　expiation　which　was　sealed　by　the　permanent　subjection　of　the　　Florentines　to　the　Medicean　family　of　which　the　Pope　was　a　member。　The　　'nipote'　and　new　Duke；　Alessandro　Medici；　was　married　to　the　natural　　daughter　of　the　Emperor。
  In　the　following　years　the　plan　of　a　Council　enabled　Charles　to　keep　　the　Papacy　in　all　essential　points　under　his　control；　and　at　one　and　　the　same　time　to　protect　and　to　oppress　it。　The　greatest　danger　of　all…　…secularizationthe　danger　which　came　from　within；　from　the　Popes　　themselves　and　their　'nipoti；'　was　adjourned　for　centuries　by　the　　German　Reformation。　Just　as　this　alone　had　made　the　expedition　against　　Rome　（1527）　possible　and　successful；　so　did　it　compel　the　Papacy　to　　become　once　more　the　expression　of　a　world…wide　spiritual　power；　to　　raise　itself　from　the　soulless　debasement　in　which　it　lay；　and　to　place　　itself　at　the　head　of　all　the　enemies　of　this　reformation。　The　　institution　thus　developed　during　the　latter　years　of　Clement　VII；　and　　under　Paul　III；　Paul　IV；　and　their　successors；　in　the　face　of　the　　defection　of　half　Europe；　was　a　new；　regenerated　hierarchy；　which　　avoided　all　the　great　and　dangerous　scandals　of　former　times；　　particularly　nepotism；　with　its　attempts　at　territorial　aggrandizement；　　and　which；　in　alliance　with　the　Catholic　princes；　and　impelled　by　a　　newborn　spiritual　force；　found　its　chief　work　in　the　recovery　of　what　　had　been　lost。　It　only　existed　and　is　only　intelligible　in　opposition　　to　the　seceders。　In　this　sense　it　can　be　said　with　perfect　truth　that　　the　moral　salvation　of　the　Papacy　is　due　to　its　mortal　enemies。　And　now　　its　political　position；　too；　though　certainly　under　the　permanent　　tutelage　of　Spain；　became　impregnable；　almost　without　effort　it　　inherited；　on　the　extinction　of　its　vassals；　the　legitimate　line　of　　Este　and　the　house　of　Della　Rovere；　the　duchies　of　Ferrara　and　Urbino。　　But　without　the　Reformationif；　indeed；　it　is　possible　to　think　it　　awaythe　whole　ecclesiastical　State　would　long　ago　have　passed　into　　secular　hands。
  Patriotism
  In　conclusion；　let　us　briefly　consider　the　effect　of　these　political　　circumstances　on　the　spirit　of　the　nation　at　large。
  It　is　evident　that　the　general　political　uncertainty　in　Italy；　during　　the　fourteenth　and　fifteenth　centuries；　was　of　a　kind　to　excite　in　the　　better　spirits　of　the　time　a　patriotic　disgust　and　opposition。　Dante　　and　Petrarch；　in　their　day；　proclaimed　loudly　a　common　Italy；　the　　object　of　the　highest　efforts　of　all　her　children。　It　may　be　objected　　that　this　was　only　the　enthusiasm　of　a　few　highly　instructed　men；　in　　which　the　mass　of　the　people　had　no　share；　but　it　can　hardly　have　been　　otherwise　even　in　Germany；　although　in　name　at　least　that　country　was　　united；　and　recognized　in　the　Emperor　one　supreme　head。　The　first　　patriotic　utterances　of　German　literature；　if　we　except　some　verses　of　　the　'Minnesanger；'　belong　to　the　humanists　of　the　time　of　Maximilian　I　　and　after；　and　read　like　an　echo　of　Italian　declamations。　And　yet；　as　a　　matter　of　fact；　Germany　had　been　long　a　nation　in　a　truer　sense　than　　Italy　ever　was　since　the　Roman　days。　France　owes　the　consciousness　of　　its　national　unity　mainly　to　its　conflicts　with　the　English；　and　Spain　　has　never　permanently　succeeded　in　absorbing　Portugal；　closely　related　　as　the　two　countries　are。　For　Italy；　the　existence　of　the　　ecclesiastical　State；　and　the　conditions　under　which　alone　it　could　　continue；　were　a　permanent　obstacle