of　an　agreeable　taste　was　made　use　of；　which　　did　not　work　on　the　spot；　but　slowly　and　gradually；　and　which　could　be　　mixed　without　notice　in　any　dish　or　goblet。　Prince　Djem　had　taken　some　　of　it　in　a　sweet　draught；　before　Alexander　surrendered　him　to　Charles　　VIII　（1495）；　and　at　the　end　of　their　career　father　and　son　poisoned　　themselves　with　the　same　powder　by　accidentally　tasting　a　sweetmeat　　intended　for　a　wealthy　cardinal。　The　official　epitomizer　of　the　history　　of　the　Popes；　Onofrio　Panvinio；　mentions　three　cardinals；　Orsini；　　Ferrerio　and　Michiel；　whom　Alexander　caused　to　be　poisoned；　and　hints　　at　a　fourth；　Giovanni　Borgia；　whom　Cesare　took　into　his　own　charge　though　probably　wealthy　prelates　seldom　died　in　Rome　at　that　time　　without　giving　rise　to　suspicions　of　this　sort。　Even　tranquil　scholars　　who　had　withdrawn　to　some　provincial　town　were　not　out　of　reach　of　the　　merciless　poison。　A　secret　horror　seemed　to　hang　about　the　Pope；　storms　　and　thunderbolts；　crushing　in　walls　and　chambers；　had　in　earlier　times　　often　visited　and　alarmed　him；　in　the　year　I　500；　when　these　phenomena　　were　repeated；　they　were　held　to　be　'cosa　diabolica。'　The　report　of　　these　events　seems　at　last；　through　the　well…attended　jubilee　of　1500；　　to　have　been　carried　far　and　wide　throughout　the　countries　of　Europe；　　and　the　infamous　traffic　in　indulgences　did　what　else　was　needed　to　　draw　all　eyes　upon　Rome。　Besides　the　returning　pilgrims；　strange　white…　robed　penitents　came　from　Italy　to　the　North；　among　them　disguised　　fugitives　from　the　Papal　State；　who　are　not　likely　to　have　been　silent。　　Yet　none　can　calculate　how　far　the　scandal　and　indignation　of　　Christendom　might　have　gone；　before　they　became　a　source　of　pressing　　danger　to　Alexander。　'He　would；'　says　Panvinio　elsewhere；　'have　put　all　　the　other　rich　cardinals　and　prelates　out　of　the　way；　to　get　their　　property；　had　he　not；　in　the　midst　of　his　great　plans　for　his　son；　been　　struck　down　by　death。'　And　what　might　not　Cesare　have　achieved　if；　at　　the　moment　when　his　father　died；　he　had　not　himself　been　laid　upon　a　　sickbed！　What　a　conclave　would　that　have　been；　in　which；　armed　with　all　　his　weapons；　he　had　extorted　his　election　from　a　college　whose　numbers　　he　had　judiciously　reduced　by　poisonand　this　at　a　time　when　there　was　　no　French　army　at　hand！　In　pursuing　such　a　hypothesis　the　imagination　　loses　itself　in　an　abyss。
  Instead　of　this　followed　the　conclave　in　which　Pius　III　was　elected；　　and；　after　his　speedy　death；　that　which　chose　Julius　II　both　　elections　the　fruits　of　a　general　reaction。
  Whatever　may　have　been　the　private　morals　of　Julius　II；　in　all　　essential　respects　he　was　the　savior　of　the　Papacy。　His　familiarity　　with　the　course　of　events　since　the　pontificate　of　his　uncle　Sixtus　had　　given　him　a　profound　insight　into　the　grounds　and　conditions　of　the　　Papal　authority。　On　these　he　founded　his　own　policy；　and　devoted　to　it　　the　whole　force　and　passion　of　his　unshaken　soul。　He　ascended　the　steps　　of　St。　Peter's　chair　without　simony　and　amid　general　applause；　and　with　　him　ceased；　at　all　events；　the　undisguised　traffic　in　the　highest　　offices　of　the　Church。　Julius　had　favorites；　and　among　them　were　some　　the　reverse　of　worthy；　but　a　special　fortune　put　him　above　the　　temptation　to　nepotism。　His　brother；　Giovanni　della　Rovere；　was　the　　husband　of　the　heiress　of　Urbino；　sister　of　the　last　Montefeltro；　　Guidobaldo；　and　from　this　marriage　was　born；　in　1491；　a　son；　Francesco　　Maria　della　Rovere；　who　was　at　the　same　time　Papal　'nipote'　and　lawful　　heir　to　the　duchy　of　Urbino。　What　Julius　elsewhere　acquired；　either　on　　the　field　of　battle　or　by　diplomatic　means；　he　proudly　bestowed　on　the　　Church；　not　on　his　family；　the　ecclesiastical　territory；　which　he　found　　in　a　state　of　dissolution；　he　bequeathed　to　his　successor　completely　　subdued；　and　increased　by　Parma　and　Piacenza。　It　was　not　his　fault　that　　Ferrara　too　was　not　added　the　Church。　The　700；000　ducats　which　were　　stored　up　in　the　Castel　Sant'　Angelo　were　to　be　delivered　by　the　　governor　to　none　but　the　future　Pope。　He　made　himself　heir　of　the　　cardinals；　and；　indeed；　of　all　the　clergy　who　died　in　Rome；　and　this　by　　the　most　despotic　means；　but　he　murdered　or　poisoned　none　of　them。　That　　he　should　himself　lead　his　forces　to　battle　was　for　him　an　unavoidable　　necessity；　and　certainly　did　him　nothing　but　good　at　a　time　when　a　man　　in　Italy　was　forced　to　be　either　hammer　or　anvil；　and　when　per…　　sonality　was　a　greater　power　than　the　most　indisputable　right。　If　　despite　all　his　high…sounding　'Away　with　the　barbarians！　'　he　　nevertheless　contributed　more　than　any　man　to　the　firm　settlement　of　　the　Spaniards　in　Italy；　he　may　have　thought　it　a　matter　of　indifference　　to　the　Papacy；　or　even；　as　things　stood；　a　relative　advantage。　And　to　　whom；　sooner　than　to　Spain；　could　the　Church　look　for　a　sincere　and　　lasting　respect；　in　an　age　when　the　princes　of　Italy　cherished　none　but　　sacrilegious　projects　against　her？　Be　this　as　it　may；　the　powerful；　　original　nature；　which　could　swallow　no　anger　and　conceal　no　genuine　　good…will；　made　on　the　whole　the　impression　most　desirable　in　his　　situationthat　of　the　'Pontefice　terribile。'　26　He　could　even；　with　　comparatively　clear　conscience；　venture　to　summon　a　council　to　Rome；　　and　so　bid　defiance　to　that　outcry　for　a　council　which　was　raised　by　　the　opposition　all　over　Europe。　A　ruler　of　this　stamp　needed　some　great　　outward　symbol　of　his　conceptions；　Julius　found　it　in　the　　reconstruction　of　St。　Peter's。　The　plan　of　it；　as　Bramante　wished　to　　have　it；　is　perhaps　the　grandest　expression　of　power　in　unity　which　can　　be　imagined。　In　other　arts　besides　architecture　the　face　and　the　memory　　of　the　Pope　live　on　in　their　most　ideal　form；　and　it　is　not　without　　significance　that　even　the　Latin　poetry　of　those　days　gives　proof　of　a　　wholly　different　enthusiasm　for　Julius　than　that　shown　for　his　　predecessors。　The　entry　into　Bologna；　at　the　end　of　the　'Iter　Julii　　Secundi'　by　the　Cardinal　Adriano　da　Corneto；　has　a　splendor　of　its　own；　　and　Giovan　Antonio　Flaminio；　in　one　of　the　finest　elegies；　appealed　to　　the　patriot　in　the　Pope　to　grant　his　protection　to　Italy。
  In　a　constitution　of　his　Lateran　Council；　Julius　had　solemnly　denounced　　the　simony　of　the　Papal　elections。　After　his　death　in　1513；　the　money…　loving　cardinals　tried　to　evade　the　prohibition　by　proposing　that　the　　endowments　and　offices　hitherto　held　by　the　chosen　candidate　should　be　　equally　divided　among　themselves；　in　which　case　they　would　have　elected　　the　best…endowed　cardinal；　the　incompetent　Raphael　Riario。　But　a　　reaction；　chiefly　arising　from　the　younger　members　of　the　Sacred　　College；　who；　above　all　things；　desired　a　liberal　Pope；　rendered　the　　miserable　combination　futile；　Giovanni　Medici　was　elected　the　famous　　Leo　X。
  We　shall　often　meet　with　him　in　treating　of　the　noonday　of　the　　Renaissance；　here　we　wish　only　to　point　out　that　under　him　the　Papacy　　was　again　exposed　to　great　inward　and　outward　dangers。　Among　these　we　　do　not　reckon　the　conspiracy　of　the　Cardinals　Petrucci；　De　Sauli；　　Riario；　and　Corneto　（1517）；　which　at　most　could　have　occasioned　a　　change　of　and　to　which　Leo　found　the　true　antidote　in　the　un…heard…of　　creation　of　thirty…one　new　cardinals；　a　measure　which　additional　　advantage　of　rewarding；　in　some　cases　at　least；　real　merit。
  But　some　of　the　paths　which　Leo　allowed　himself　to　tread　during　the　　first　two　years　of　his　office　were　perilous　to　the　last　degree。　He　　seriously　endeavored　to　secure；　by　negotiation；　the　kingdom　of　Naples　　for　his　brother　Giuliano；　and　for　his　nephew　Lorenzo　a　powerful　North　　Italian　State；　to　comprise　Milan；　Tuscany；　Urbino　and　Ferrara。　It　is　　clear　that　the　Pontifical　State；　thus　hemmed　in　on　all　sides；　would　　have　become　a　mere　Medicean　appanage；　and　that；　in　fact；　there　would　　have　been　no　further　need　to　secularize　it。
  The　plan　found　an　insuperable　obstacle　in　the　political　conditions　of　　the　time。　Giuliano　died　early。　To　provide　for　Lorenzo；　Leo　undertook　to　　expel　the　Duke　Francesco　Maria　della　Rovere　from　Urbino；　but　reaped　　from　the　war　nothing　but　hatred　and　poverty；　and　was　forced；　when　in　　1519　Lorenzo　followed　his　uncle　to　the　grave；　to　hand　over　the　hard…won　　conquests　to　the　Church。　He　did　on　compulsion　and　without　credit　what；　　if　it　had　been　done　voluntarily；　would　have　been　to　his　lasting　honour。　　What　he　attempted　against　Alfonso　of　Ferrara；　and　actually　achieved　　against　a　few　petty　despots　and　Condottieri；　was　assuredly　not　of　a　　kind　to　raise　his　reputation。　And　this　was　at　a　time　when　the　monarchs　　of　the　West　were　yearly　growing　more　and　more　accustomed　to　political　　gambling　on　a　colossal　scale；　of　which　the　stakes　were　this　or　that　　province　of　Italy。　Who　could　guarantee　that；　since　the　last　decades　had　　seen　so　great　an　increase　of　their　power　at　home；　their　ambition　would　　stop　short　of　the　States　of　the　Church？　Leo　himself　witnessed　the　　prelude　of　what　was　fulfilled　in　the　year　1527；　a　few　bands　of　Spanish　　infantry　appeared　of　their　own　accord；　it　seems　at　the　end　of　1520；　　on　the　borders　of　the　Pontifical　territory；　with　a　view　to　laying　the　　Pope　under　contribution；　but　were　driven　back　by　the　Papal　forces。　The　　public　feeling；　too；　against　the　corruptions　of　t