in　the　case　of　the　　conspiracy　of　Stefano　Porcari　against　Nicholas　V　（1453）；　the　very　Pope　　who　had　done　most　for　the　prosperity　of　the　city。　Porcari　aimed　at　the　　complete　overthrow　of　the　papal　authority；　and　had　distinguished　　accomplices；　who；　though　their　names　are　not　handed　down　to　us；　are　　certainly　to　be　looked　for　among　the　Italian　governments　of　the　time。　　Under　the　pontificate　of　the　same　man；　Lorenzo　Valla　concluded　his　　famous　declamation　against　the　gift　of　Constantine　with　the　wish　for　　the　speedy　secularization　of　the　States　of　the　Church。
  The　Catilinarian　gang　with　which　Pius　II　had　to　（1460）　avowed　with　　equal　frankness　their　resolution　to　overthrow　the　government　of　the　　priests；　and　its　leader；　Tiburzio；　threw　the　blame　on　the　soothsayers；　　who　had　fixed　the　accom…　plishment　of　his　wishes　for　this　very　year。　　Several　of　the　chief　men　of　Rome；　the　Prince　of　Taranto；　and　the　　Condottiere　Jacopo　Piccinino；　were　accomplices　and　supporters　of　　Tiburzio。　Indeed；　when　we　think　of　the　booty　which　was　accumulated　in　　the　palaces　of　wealthy　prelatesthe　conspirators　had　the　Car…　dinal　of　　Aquileia　especially　in　viewwe　are　surprised　that；　in　an　almost　　unguarded　city；　such　attempts　were　not　more　frequent　and　more　　successful。　It　was　not　without　reason　that　Pius　II　preferred　to　reside　　anywhere　rather　than　in　Rome；　and　even　Paul　II　was　exposed　to　no　small　　anxiety　through　a　plot　formed　by　some　discharged　abbreviators；　who；　　under　the　command　of　Platina；　besieged　the　Vatican　for　twenty　days。　The　　Papacy　must　sooner　or　later　have　fallen　a　victim　to　such　enterprises；　　if　it　had　not　stamped　out　the　aristocratic　factions　under　whose　　protection　these　bands　of　robbers　grew　to　a　head。
  This　task　was　undertaken　by　the　terrible　Sixtus　IV。　He　was　the　first　　Pope　who　had　Rome　and　the　neighbourhood　thoroughly　under　his　control；　　especially　after　his　successful　attack　on　the　House　of　Colonna；　and　　consequently；　both　in　his　Italian　policy　and　in　the　internal　affairs　of　　the　Church；　he　could　venture　to　act　with　a　defiant　audacity；　and　to　set　　at　nought　the　complaints　and　threats　to　summon　a　council　which　arose　　from　all　parts　of　Europe。　He　supplied　himself　with　the　necessary　funds　　by　simony；　which　suddenly　grew　to　unheard…of　proportions；　and　which　　extended　from　the　appointment　of　cardinals　down　to　the　granting　of　the　　smallest　favours。　Sixtus　himself　had　not　obtained　the　papal　dignity　　without　recourse　to　the　same　means。
  A　corruption　so　universal　might　sooner　or　later　bring　disastrous　　consequences　on　the　Holy　See；　but　they　lay　in　the　uncertain　future。　It　　was　otherwise　with　nepotism；　which　threatened　at　one　time　to　destroy　　the　Papacy　altogether。　Of　all　the　'nipoti；'　Cardinal　Pietro　Riario　　enjoyed　at　first　the　chief　and　almost　exclusive　favour　of　Sixtus。　He　　soon　drew　upon　him　the　eyes　of　all　Italy；　partly　by　the　fabulous　luxury　　of　his　life；　partly　through　the　reports　which　were　current　of　his　　irreligion　and　his　political　plans。　He　bargained　with　Duke　Galeazzo　　Maria　of　Milan　（1473）；　that　the　latter　should　become　King　of　Lombardy；　　and　then　aid　him　with　money　and　troops　to　return　to　Rome　and　ascend　the　　papal　throne；　Sixtus；　it　appears；　would　have　voluntarily　yielded　to　　him。　This　plan；　which；　by　making　the　Papacy　hereditary；　would　have　　ended　in　the　secularization　of　the　papal　State；　failed　through　the　　sudden　death　of　Pietro。　The　second　'nipote；'　Girolamo　Riario；　remained　　a　layman；　and　did　not　seek　the　Pontificate。　From　this　time　the　　'nipoti；'　by　their　endeavors　to　found　principalities　for　themselves；　　became　a　new　source　of　confusion　to　Italy。　It　had　already　happened　that　　the　Popes　tried　to　make　good　their　feudal　claims　on　Naples　un　favour　of　　their　relatives；　but　since　the　failure　of　Calixtus　III。　such　a　scheme　　was　no　longer　practicable；　and　Girolamo　Riario；　after　the　attempt　to　　conquer　Florence　（and　who　knows　how　many　others　places）　had　failed；　was　　forced　to　content　himself　with　founding　a　State　within　the　limits　of　　the　papal　dominions　themselves。　This　was　in　so　far　justifiable　as　　Romagna；　with　its　princes　and　civic　despots；　threatened　to　shake　off　　the　papal　supremacy　altogether；　and　ran　the　risk　of　shortly　falling　a　　prey　to　Sforza　or　the　Venetians；　when　Rome　interfered　to　prevent　it。　　But　who；　at　times　and　in　circumstances　like　these；　could　guarantee　the　　continued　obedience　of　'nipoti'　and　their　descendants；　now　turned　into　　sovereign　rulers；　to　Popes　with　whom　they　had　no　further　concern？　Even　　in　his　lifetime　the　Pope　was　not　always　sure　of　his　own　son　or　nephew；　　and　the　temptation　was　strong　to　expel　the　'nipote'　of　a　predecessor　　and　replace　him　by　one　of　his　own。　The　reaction　of　the　whole　system　on　　the　Papacy　itself　was　of　the　most　serious　character；　all　means　of　　compulsion；　whether　temporal　or　spiritual；　were　used　without　scruple　　for　the　most　questionable　ends；　and　to　these　all　the　other　objects　of　　the　Apostolic　See　were　made　subordinate。　And　when　they　were　attained；　　at　whatever　cost　of　revolutions　and　proscriptions；　a　dynasty　was　　founded　which　had　no　stronger　interest　than　the　destruction　of　the　　Papacy。
  At　the　death　of　Sixtus；　Girolamo　was　only　able　to　maintain　himself　in　　his　usurped　principality　of　Forli　and　Imola　by　the　utmost　exertions　of　　his　own；　and　by　the　aid　of　the　House　of　Sforza；　to　which　his　wife　　belonged。　In　the　conclave　（1484）　which　followed　the　death　of　Sixtus　that　in　which　Innocent　VIII　was　electedan　incident　occurred　which　　seemed　to　furnish　the　Papacy　with　a　new　external　guarantee。　Two　　cardinals；　who；　at　the　same　time；　were　princes　of　ruling　houses；　　Giovanni　d'Aragona；　son　of　King　Ferrante；　and　Ascanio　Sforza；　brother　　of　Lodovico　il　Moro；　sold　their　votes　with　shameless　effrontery；　so　　that；　at　any　rate；　the　ruling　houses　of　Naples　and　Milan　became　　interested；　by　their　participation　in　the　booty；　in　the　continuance　of　　the　papal　system。　Once　again；　in　the　following　conclave；　when　all　the　　cardinals　but　five　sold　themselves；　Ascanio　received　enormous　sums　in　　bribes；　not　without　cherishing　the　hope　that　at　the　next　election　he　　would　himself　be　the　favored　candidate。
  Lorenzo　the　Magnificent；　on　his　part；　was　anxious　that　the　House　of　　Medici　should　not　be　sent　away　with　empty　hands。　He　married　his　　daughter　Maddalena　to　the　son　of　the　new　Pope　the　first　who　publicly　　acknowledged　his　children　Franceschetto　Cibo；　and　expected　not　only　　favours　of　all　kinds　for　his　own　son；　Cardinal　Giovanni；　afterwards　Leo　　X；　but　also　the　rapid　promotion　of　his　son…in…law。　But　with　respect　to　　the　latter；　he　demanded　impossibilities。　Under　Innocent　VIII　there　was　　no　opportunity　for　the　audacious　nepotism　by　which　States　had　been　　founded；　since　Franceschetto　himself　was　a　poor　creature　who；　like　his　　father　the　Pope；　sought　power　only　for　the　lowest　purpose　of　allthe　　acquisition　and　accumulation　of　money。　The　manner；　however；　in　which　　father　and　son　practiced　this　occupation　must　have　led　sooner　or　later　　to　a　final　catastrophethe　dissolution　of　the　State。　If　Sixtus　had　　filled　his　treasury　by　the　sale　of　spiritual　dignities　and　favours；　　Innocent　and　his　son；　for　their　part；　established　an　office　for　the　　sale　of　secular　favours；　in　which　pardons　for　murder　and　manslaughter　　were　sold　for　large　sums　of　money。　Out　of　every　fine　150　ducats　were　　paid　into　the　papal　exchequer；　and　what　was　over　to　Franceschetto。　　Rome；　during　the　latter　part　of　this　pontificate；　swarmed　with　licensed　　and　unlicensed　assassins；　the　factions；　which　Sixtus　had　begun　to　put　　down；　were　again　as　active　as　ever；　the　Pope；　well　guarded　in　the　　Vatican；　was　satisfied　with　now　and　then　laying　a　trap；　in　which　a　　wealthy　misdoer　was　occasionally　caught。　For　Franceschetto　the　chief　　point　was　to　know　by　what　means；　when　the　Pope　died；　he　could　escape　　with　well…filled　coffers。　He　betrayed　himself　at　last；　on　the　occasion　　of　a　false　report　（1490）　of　his　father's　death；　he　endeavored　to　carry　　off　all　the　money　in　the　papal　treasury；　and　when　this　proved　　impossible；　insisted　that；　at　all　events；　the　Turkish　prince；　Djem；　　should　go　with　him；　and　serve　as　a　living　capital；　to　be　advantageously　　disposed　of；　perhaps　to　Ferrante　of　Naples。　It　is　hard　to　estimate　the　　political　possibilities　of　remote　periods；　but　we　cannot　help　asking　　ourselves　the　question　if　Rome　could　have　survived　two　or　three　　pontificates　of　this　kind。　Also　with　reference　to　the　believing　　countries　of　Europe；　it　was　imprudent　to　let　matters　go　so　far　that　not　　only　travellers　and　pilgrims；　but　a　whole　embassy　of　Maximilian；　King　　of　the　Romans；　were　stripped　to　their　shirts　in　the　neighbourhood　of　　Rome；　and　that　envoys　had　constantly　to　turn　back　without　setting　foot　　within　the　city。
  Such　a　condition　of　things　was　incompatible　with　the　conception　of　　power　and　its　pleasures　which　inspired　the　gifted　Alexander　VI　（1492…　1503）；　and　the　first　event　that　happened　was　the　restoration；　at　least　　provisionally；　of　public　order；　and　the　punctual　payment　of　every　　salary。
  Strictly　speaking；　as　we　are　now　discussing　phases　of　Italian　　civilization；　this　pontificate　might　be　passed　over；　since　the　Borgias　　are　no　more　Italian　than　the　House　of　Naples。　Alexander　spoke　Spanish　　in　public　with　Cesare；　Lucrezia；　at　her　entrance　to　Ferrara；　where　she