tian　army　list；　one　is　only　surprised　that　among　forces　of　　such　miscellaneous　composition　any　common　action　was　possible。　In　the　　catalogue　for　the　campaign　of　1495　we　find　15；526　horsemen；　broken　up　　into　a　number　of　small　divisions。　Gonzaga　of　Mantua　alone　had　as　many　　as　I；200；　and　Gioffredo　Borgia　740；　then　follow　six　officers　with　a　　contingent　of　600　to　700；　ten　with　400；　twelve　with　400　to　200；　　fourteen　or　thereabouts　with　200　to　100；　nine　with　80；　six　with　50　to　　60；　and　so　forth。　These　forces　were　partly　composed　of　old　Venetian　　troops；　partly　of　veterans　led　by　Venetian　city　or　country　nobles；　the　　majority　of　the　leaders　were；　however；　princes　and　rulers　of　cities　or　　their　relatives。　To　these　forces　must　be　added　24；000　infantry　we　are　　not　told　how　they　were　raised　or　commanded　with　3；300　additional　　troops；　who　probably　belonged　to　the　special　services。　In　time　of　peace　　the　cities　of　the　mainland　were　wholly　unprotected　or　occupied　by　　insignificant　garrisons。　Venice　relied；　if　not　exactly　on　the　loyalty；　　at　least　on　the　good　sense　of　its　subjects；　in　the　war　of　the　League　of　　Cambrai　（1509）　it　absolved　them；　as　is　well　known；　from　their　oath　of　　allegiance；　and　let　them　compare　the　amenities　of　a　foreign　occupation　　with　the　mild　government　to　which　they　had　been　accustomed。　As　there　　had　been　no　treason　in　their　desertion　of　St。　Mark；　and　consequently　no　　punishment　was　to　be　feared；　they　returned　to　their　old　masters　with　　the　utmost　eagerness。　This　war；　we　may　remark　parenthetically；　was　the　　result　of　a　century's　outcry　against　the　Venetian　desire　for　　aggrandizement。　The　Venetians；　in　fact；　were　not　free　from　the　mistake　　of　those　over…clever　people　who　will　credit　their　opponents　with　no　　irrational　and　inconsiderate　conduct。　Misled　by　this　optimism；　which　　is；　perhaps；　a　peculiar　weakness　of　aristocracies；　they　had　utterly　　ignored　not　only　the　preparations　of　Mohammed　II　for　the　capture　of　　Constantinople；　but　even　the　armaments　of　Charles　VIII；　till　the　　unexpected　blow　fell　at　last。　The　League　of　Cambrai　was　an　event　of　the　　same　character；　in　so　far　as　it　was　clearly　opposed　to　the　interests　of　　the　two　chief　members；　Louis　XII　and　Julius　II。　The　hatred　of　all　Italy　　against　t｝e　victorious　city　seemed　to　be　concentrated　in　the　mind　of　　the　Pope；　and　to　have　blinded　him　to　the　evils　of　foreign　intervention；　　and　as　to　the　policy　of　Cardinal　d'Amboise　and　his　king；　Venice　ought　　long　before　to　have　recognized　it　as　a　piece　of　malicious　imbecility；　　and　to　have　been　thoroughly　on　its　guard。　The　other　members　of　the　　League　took　part　in　it　from　that　envy　which　may　be　a　salutary　　corrective　to　great　wealth　and　power；　but　which　in　itself　is　a　beggarly　　sentiment。　Venice　came　out　of　the　conflict　with　honour；　but　not　without　　lasting　damage。
  A　power　whose　foundations　were　so　complicated；　whose　activity　and　　interests　filled　so　wide　a　stage；　cannot　be　imagined　without　a　　systematic　oversight　of　the　whole；　without　a　regular　estimate　of　means　　and　burdens；　of　profits　and　losses。　Venice　can　fairly　make　good　its　　claim　to　be　the　birthplace　of　statistical　science；　together；　perhaps；　　with　Florence；　and　followed　by　the　more　enlightened　despotisms。　The　　feudal　state　of　the　Middle　Ages　knew　of　nothing　more　than　catalogues　of　　seignorial　rights　and　possessions　（urbaria）；　it　looked　on　production　as　　a　fixed　quantity；　which　it　approximately　is；　so　long　as　we　have　to　do　　with　landed　property　only。　The　towns；　on　the　other　hand；　throughout　the　　West　must　from　very　early　times　have　treated　production；　which　with　　them　depended　on　industry　and　commerce；　as　exceedingly　variable；　but　　even　in　the　most　flourishing　times　of　the　Hanseatic　League；　they　never　　got　beyond　a　simple　commercial　balance…sheet。　Fleets；　armies；　political　　power　and　influence　fall　under　the　debit　and　credit　of　a　trader's　　ledger。　In　the　Italian　States　a　clear　political　consciousness；　the　　pattern　of　Mohammedan　administration；　and　the　long　and　active　exercise　　of　trade　and　commerce；　combined　to　produce　for　the　first　time　a　true　　science　of　statistics。　The　absolute　monarchy　of　Frederick　II　in　Lower　　Italy　was　organized　with　the　sole　object　of　securing　a　concentrated　　power　for　the　death　struggle　in　which　he　was　engaged。　In　Venice；　on　the　　contrary；　the　supreme　objects　were　the　enjoyment　of　life　and　power；　the　　increase　of　inherited　advantages；　the　creation　of　the　most　lucrative　　forms　of　industry。　and　the　opening　of　new　channels　for　commerce。
  The　writers　of　the　time　speak　of　these　things　with　the　greatest　　freedom。　We　learn　that　the　population　of　the　city　amounted　in　the　year　　1422　to　190；000　souls；　the　Italians　were；　perhaps；　the　first　to　reckon；　　not　according　to　hearths；　or　men　able　to　bear　arms；　or　people　able　to　　walk；　and　so　forth；　but　according　to　'animae；'　and　thus　to　get　the　most　　neutral　basis　for　further　calculation。　About　this　time；　when　the　　Florentines　wished　to　form　an　alliance　with　Venice　against　Filippo　　Maria　Visconti；　they　were　for　the　moment　refused；　in　the　belief；　　resting　on　accurate　commercial　returns；　that　a　war　between　Venice　and　　Milan；　that　is；　between　seller　and　buyer；　was　foolish。　Even　if　the　duke　　simply　increased　his　army；　the　Milanese；　through　the　heavier　taxation　　they　must　pay；　would　become　worse　customers。　'Better　let　the　　Florentines　be　defeated；　and　then；　used　as　they　are　to　the　life　of　a　　free　city；　they　will　settle　with　us　and　bring　their　silk　and　woollen　　industry　with　them；　as　the　Lucchese　did　in　their　distress。'　The　speech　　of　the　dying　Doge　Mocenigo　（1423）　to　a　few　of　the　senators　whom　he　had　　sent　for　to　his　bedside　is　still　more　remarkable。　It　contains　the　chief　　elements　of　a　statistical　account　of　the　whole　resources　of　Venice。　I　　cannot　say　whether　or　where　a　thorough　elucidation　of　this　perplexing　　document　exists；　by　way　of　illustration；　the　following　facts　may　be　　quoted。　After　repaying　a　war…loan　of　four　million　ducats；　the　public　　debt　（'il　monte'）　still　amounted　to　six　million　ducats；　the　current　　trade　（it　seems）　to　ten　millions；　which　yielded；　the　text　informs　us；　a　　profit　of　four　millions。　The　3；000　'navigli；'　the　300　'navi；'　and　the　　45　galleys　were　manned　respectively　by　17；000；　8；000　and　11；000　seamen　　（more　than　200　for　each　galley）。　To　these　must　be　added　16；000　　shipwrights。　The　houses　in　Venice　were　valued　at　seven　millions；　and　　brought　in　a　rent　of　half　a　million。　These　were　1；000　nobles　whose　　incomes　ranged　from　70　to　4；000　ducats。　In　another　passage　the　ordinary　　income　of　the　State　in　that　same　year　is　put　at　1；100；000　ducats；　　through　the　disturbance　of　trade　caused　by　the　wars　it　sank　about　the　　middle　of　the　century　to　800；000　ducats。
  If　Venice；　by　this　spirit　of　calculation；　and　by　the　practical　turn　　which　she　gave　it；　was　the　first　fully　to　represent　one　important　side　　of　modern　political　life；　in　that　culture；　on　the　other　hand；　which　　Italy　then　prized　most　highly　she　did　not　stand　in　the　front　rant。　The　　literary　impulse；　in　general；　was　here　wanting；　and　especially　that　　enthusiasm　for　classical　antiquity　which　prevailed　elsewhere。　The　　aptitude　of　the　Venetians；　says　Sabellico；　for　philosophy　and　eloquence　　was　in　itself　not　smaller　than　that　for　commerce　and　politics。　George　　of　Trebizond；　who；　in　1459；　laid　the　Latin　translation　of　Plato's　Laws　　at　the　feet　of　the　Doge；　was　appointed　professor　of　philology　with　a　　yearly　salary　of　150　ducats；　and　finally　dedicated　his　'Rhetoric'　to　　the　Signoria。　If；　however；　we　look　through　the　history　of　Venetian　　literature　which　Francesco　Sansovino　has　appended　to　his　well…known　　book；　we　shall　find　in　the　fourteenth　century　almost　nothing　but　　history；　and　special　works　on　theology；　jurisprudence；　and　medicine；　　and　in　the　fifteenth　century；　till　we　come　to　Ermolao　Barbaro　and　Aldo　　Manuzio；　humanistic　culture　is；　for　a　city　of　such　importance；　most　　scantily　represented。　The　library　which　Cardinal　Bessarion　bequeathed　　to　the　State　（1468）　narrowly　escaped　dispersion　and　destruction。　　Learning　could　be　had　at　the　University　of　Padua；　where；　however；　　physicians　and　jurists　the　latter　for　their　opinion　on　points　of　law　　received　by　far　the　highest　pay。　The　share　of　Venice　in　the　poetical　　creations　of　the　country　was　long　insignificant；　till；　at　the　beginning　　of　the　sixteenth　century；　her　deficiencies　were　made　good。　Even　the　art　　of　the　Renaissance　was　imported　into　the　city　from　without；　and　it　was　　not　before　the　end　of　the　fifteenth　century　that　she　learned　to　move　in　　this　field　with　independent　freedom　and　strength。　But　we　find　more　　striking　instances　still　of　intellectual　backwardness。　This　Government；　　which　had　the　clergy　so　thoroughly　in　its　control；　which　reserved　to　　itself　the　appointment　to　all　important　ecclesiastical　offices；　and　　which；　one　time　after　another；　dared　to　defy　the　court　of　Rome；　　displayed　an　official　piety　of　a　most　singular　kind。　The　bodies　of　　saints　and　other　relics　imported　from　Greece　after　the　Turkish　conquest　　were　bought　at　the　greatest　sacrifices　and　received　by　the　Doge　in　　solemn　procession。12　For　the　coat　without　a　seam　it　was　decided　（1455）　　to　offer　10；000　ducats；　but　it　was　not　to　be　had。　These　measures　were　　not　the　fruit　of　any　popular　excitement；　but　of　the　tranquil　　resolutions　of　t