is　transacted；　not　amid　shouting　and　confusion；　but　with　　the　subdued　bum　of　many　voices；　where　in　the　porticoes　round　the　square　　and　in　those　of　the　adjoining　streets　sit　hundreds　of　money　changers　　and　goldsmiths；　with　endless　rows　of　shops　and　warehouses　above　their　　heads。　He　describes　the　great　Fondaco　of　the　Germans　beyond　the　bridge；　　where　their　goods　and　their　dwellings　lay；　and　before　which　their　ships　　are　drawn　up　side　by　side　in　the　canal；　higher　up　is　a　whole　fleet　　laden　with　wine　and　oil；　and　parallel　with　i　t；　on　the　shore　swarming　　with　porters；　are　the　vaults　of　the　merchants；　then　from　the　Rialto　to　　the　square　of　St。　Mark　come　the　inns　and　the　perfumers'　cabinets。　So　he　　conducts　the　reader　from　one　quarter　of　the　city　to　another　till　he　　comes　at　last　to　the　two　hospitals；　which　were　among　those　institutions　　of　public　utility　nowhere　so　numerous　as　at　Venice。　Care　for　the　　people；　in　peace　as　well　as　in　war；　was　characteristic　of　this　　government；　and　its　attention　to　the　wounded；　even　to　those　of　the　　enemy；　excited　the　admiration　of　other　States。
  Public　institutions　of　every　kind　found　in　Venice　their　pattern；　the　　pensioning　of　retired　servants　was　carried　out　systematically；　and　　included　a　provision　for　widows　and　orphans。　Wealth；　political　　security；　and　acquaintance　with　other　countries；　had　matured　the　　understanding　of　such　questions。　These　slender　fair…　haired　men；　with　　quiet　cautious　steps　and　deliberate　speech；　differed　but　slightly　in　　costume　and　bearing　from　one　another；　ornaments；　especially　pearls；　　were　reserved　for　the　women　and　girls。　At　that　time　the　general　　prosperity；　notwithstanding　the　losses　sustained　from　the　Turks；　was　　still　dazzling；　the　stores　of　energy　which　the　city　possessed；　and　the　　prejudice　in　its　favour　diffused　throughout　Europe；　enabled　it　at　a　　much　later　time　to　survive　the　heavy　blows　inflicted　upon　it　by　the　　discovery　of　the　sea　route　to　the　Indies；　by　the　fall　of　the　Mamelukes　　in　Egypt；　and　by　the　war　of　the　League　of　Cambrai。
  Sabellico；　born　in　the　neighbourhood　of　Tivoli；　and　accustomed　to　the　　frank　loquacity　of　the　scholars　of　his　day；　remarks　elsewhere　with　some　　astonishment；　that　the　young　nobles　who　came　of　a　morning　to　hear　his　　lectures　could　not　be　prevailed　upon　to　enter　into　political　　discussions：　'When　I　ask　them　what　people　think；　say；　and　expect　about　　this　or　that　movement　in　Italy；　they　all　answer　with　one　voice　that　　they　know　nothing　about　the　matter。'　Still；　in　spite　of　the　strict　　imposition　of　the　State；　much　was　to　be　learned　from　the　more　corrupt　　members　of　the　aristocracy　by　those　who　were　willing　to　pay　enough　for　　it。　In　the　last　quarter　of　the　fifteenth　century　there　were　traitors　　among　the　highest　officials；　the　popes；　the　Italian　princes；　and　even　　the　second…rate　Condottieri　in　the　service　of　the　government　had　　informers　in　their　pay；　sometimes　with　regular　salaries；　things　went　so　　far　that　the　Council　of　Ten　found　it　prudent　to　conceal　important　　political　news　from　the　Council　of　the　Pregadi；　and　it　was　even　　supposed　that　Lodovico　il　Moro　had　control　of　a　definite　number　of　　votes　among　the　latter。　Whether　the　hanging　of　single　offenders　and　the　　high　rewards　such　as　a　life…pension　of　sixty　ducats　paid　to　those　who　　informed　against　them　were　of　much　avail；　it　is　hard　to　decide；　one　of　　the　chief　causes　of　this　evil；　the　poverty　of　many　of　the　nobility；　　could　not　be　removed　in　a　day。　In　the　year　1492　a　proposal　was　urged　by　　two　of　that　order；　that　the　State　should　spend　70；000　ducats　for　the　　relief　of　those　poorer　nobles　who　held　no　public　office；　the　matter　was　　near　coming　before　the　Great　Council；　in　which　it　might　have　had　a　　majority；　when　the　Council　of　Ten　interfered　in　time　and　banished　the　　two　proposers　for　life　to　Nicosia　in　Cyprus。　About　this　time　a　Soranzo　　was　hanged；　though　not　in　Venice　itself；　for　sacrilege；　and　a　Contarini　　put　in　chains　for　burglary；　another　of　the　same　family　came　in　1499　　before　the　Signory；　and　complained　that　for　many　years　he　had　been　　without　an　office；　that　he　had　only　sixteen　ducats　a　year　and　nine　　children；　that　his　debts　amounted　to　sixty　ducats；　that　he　knew　no　　trade　and　had　lately　been　turned　into　the　streets。　We　can　understand　　why　some　of　the　wealthier　nobles　built　houses；　sometimes　whole　rows　of　　them；　to　provide　free　lodging　for　their　needy　comrades。　Such　works　　figure　in　wills　among　deeds　of　charity。
  But　if　the　enemies　of　Venice　ever　founded　serious　hopes　upon　abuses　of　　this　kind；　they　were　greatly　in　error。　It　might　be　thought　that　the　　commercial　activity　of　the　city；　which　put　within　reach　of　the　humblest　　a　rich　reward　for　their　labor；　and　the　colonies　on　the　eastern　shores　　of　the　Mediterranean　would　have　diverted　from　political　affairs　the　　dangerous　elements　of　society。　But　had　not　the　political　history　of　　Genoa；　notwithstanding　similar　advantages；　been　of　the　stormiest？　The　　cause　of　the　stability　of　Venice　lies　rather　in　a　combination　of　　circumstances　which　were　found　in　union　nowhere　else。　Unassailable　from　　its　position；　it　had　been　able　from　the　beginning　to　treat　of　foreign　　affairs　with　the　fullest　and　calmest　reflection；　and　ignore　nearly　　altogether　the　parties　which　divided　the　rest　of　Italy；　to　escape　the　　entanglement　of　permanent　alliances；　and　to　set　the　highest　price　on　　those　which　it　thought　fit　to　make。　The　keynote　of　the　Venetian　　character　was；　consequently；　a　spirit　of　proud　and　contemptuous　　isolation；　which；　joined　to　the　hatred　felt　for　the　city　by　the　other　　States　of　Italy；　gave　rise　to　a　strong　sense　of　solidarity　within　The　　inhabitants　meanwhile　were　united　by　the　most　powerful　ties　of　interest　　in　dealing　both　with　the　colonies　and　with　the　possessions　on　the　　mainland；　forcing　the　population　of　the　latter；　that　is；　of　all　the　　towns　up　to　Bergamo；　to　buy　and　sell　in　Venice　alone。　A　power　which　　rested　on　means　so　artificial　could　only　be　maintained　by　internal　　harmony　and　unity；　and　this　conviction　was　so　widely　diffused　among　the　　citizens　that　conspirators　found　few　elements　to　work　upon。　And　the　　discontented；　if　there　were　such；　were　held　so　far　apart　by　the　　division　between　the　noble　and　the　burgher　that　a　mutual　understanding　　was　not　easy。　On　the　other　hand；　within　the　ranks　of　the　nobility　　itself；　travel；　commercial　enterprise；　and　tb^　incessant　wars　with　the　　Turks　saved　the　wealthy　and　dangerous　from　that　fruitful　source　of　　conspiracies　idleness。　In　these　wars　they　were　spared；　often　to　a　　criminal　extent；　by　the　general　in　command；　and　the　fall　of　the　city　　was　predicted　by　a　Venetian　Cato；　if　this　fear　of　the　nobles　'to　give　o　　ne　another　pain'　should　continue　at　the　expense　of　justice。　　Nevertheless　this　free　movement　in　the　open　air　gave　the　Venetian　　aristocracy；　as　a　whole；　a　healthy　bias。
  And　when　envy　and　ambition　called　for　satisfaction；　an　official　victim　　was　forthcoming　and　legal　means　and　authorities　were　ready。　The　moral　　torture　which　for　years　the　Doge　Francesco　Foscari　（d。　1457）　suffered　　before　the　eyes　of　all　Venice　is　a　frightful　example　of　a　vengeance　　possible　only　in　an　aristocracy。　The　Council　of　Ten；　which　had　a　hand　　in　everything；　which　disposed　without　appeal　of　life　and　death；　of　S　　financial　affairs　and　military　appointments；　which　included　the　　Inquisitors　among　its　number；　and　which　overthrew　Foscari；　as　it　had　　overthrown　so　many　powerful　men　before　this　Council　was　yearly　chosen　　afresh　from　the　whole　governing　body；　the　Gran　Consiglio；　and　was　　consequently　the　most　direct　expression　of　its　will。　It　is　not　probable　　that　serious　intrigues　occurred　at　these　elections；　as　the　short　　duration　of　the　office　and　the　accountability　which　followed　rendered　　it　an　object　of　no　great　desire。　But　violent　and　mysterious　as　the　　proceedings　of　this　and　other　authorities　might　be；　the　genuine　　Venetian　courted　rather　than　fled　their　sentence；　not　only　because　the　　Republic　had　long　arms；　and　if　it　could　not　catch　him　might　punish　his　　family；　but　because　in　most　cases　it　acted　from　rational　motives　and　　not　from　a　thirst　for　blood。　No　State；　indeed；　has　ever　exercised　a　　greater　moral　influence　over　its　subjects；　whether　abroad　or　at　home。　　If　traitors　were　to　be　found　among　the　Pregadi；　there　was　ample　　compensation　for　this　in　the　fact　that　every　Venetian　away　from　home　　was　a　born　spy　for　his　government。　It　was　a　matter　of　course　that　the　　Venetian　cardinals　at　Rome　sent　home　news　of　the　transactions　of　the　　secret　papal　consistories。　The　Cardinal　Domenico　Grimani　had　the　　dispatches　intercepted　in　the　neighbourhood　of　Rome　（1500）　which　　Ascanio　Sforza　was　sending　to　his　brother　Lodovico　il　Moro；　and　　forwarded　them　to　Venice；　his　father；　then　exposed　to　a　serious　　accusation；　claimed　public　credit　for　this　service　of　his　son　before　　the　Gran　Consiglio；　in　other　words；　before　all　the　world。
  The　conduct　of　the　Venetian　government　to　the　Condottieri　in　its　pay　　has　been　spoken　of　already。　The　only　further　guarantee　of　their　　fidelity　which　could　be　obtained　lay　in　their　great　number；　by　which　　treachery　was　made　as　difficult　as　its　discovery　was　easy。　In　looking　　at　the　Venetian　army　list；　one　is　only　surprised　that　among　forces　of　　such　miscellaneous　composition　any　commo