it　now　rained　satires　some　of　them　in　　the　form　of　sonnets；　others　of　odes。
  It　was　wholly　in　the　spirit　of　this　system　that　the　sovereign　imposed　　his　own　respect　for　useful　servants　on　the　court　and　on　the　people。　　When　in　1469　Borso's　privy　councillor　Lodovico　Casella　died；　no　court　　of　law　or　place　of　business　in　the　city；　and　no　lecture…room　at　the　　University；　was　allowed　to　be　open：　all　had　to　follow　the　body　to　San　　Domenico；　since　the　duke　intended　to　be　present。　And；　in　fact；　'the　　first　of　the　house　of　Este　who　attended　the　corpse　of　a　subject'　　walked；　clad　in　black；　after　the　coffin；　weeping；　while　behind　him　came　　the　relatives　of　Casella；　each　conducted　by　one　of　the　gentlemen　of　the　　court：　the　body　of　the　plain　citizen　was　carried　by　nobles　from　the　　church　into　the　cloister；　where　it　was　buried。　Indeed　this　official　　sympathy　with　princely　emotion　first　came　up　in　the　Italian　States。　At　　the　root　of　the　practice　may　be　a　beautiful；　humane　sentiment；　the　　utterance　of　it；　especially　in　the　poets；　is；　as　a　rule；　of　equivocal　　sincerity。　One　of　the　youthful　poems　of　Ariosto；　on　the　Death　of　　Leonora　of　Aragon；　wife　of　Ercole　I；　contains　besides　the　inevitable　　graveyard　flowers；　which　are　scattered　in　the　elegies　of　all　ages；　some　　thoroughly　modern　features：　This　death　had　given　Ferrara　a　blow　which　　it　would　not　get　over　for　years：　its　benefactress　was　now　its　advocate　　in　heaven；　since　earth　was　not　worthy　of　her；　truly　the　angel　of　Death　　did　not　come　to　her；　as　to　us　common　mortals；　with　blood…stained　　scythe；　but　fair　to　behold　（onesta）；　and　with　so　kind　a　face　that　every　　fear　was　allayed。'　But　we　meet；　also；　with　sympathy　of　a　different　　kind。　Novelists；　depending　wholly　on　the　favour　of　their　patrons；　tell　　us　the　love　stories　of　the　prince；　even　before　his　death；　in　a　way　　which；　to　later　times；　would　seem　the　height　of　indiscretion；　but　which　　then　passed　simply　as　an　innocent　compliment。　Lyrical　poets　even　went　　so　far　as　to　sing　the　illicit　flames　of　their　lawfully　married　lords；　　e。g。　Angelo　Poliziano；　those　of　Lorenzo　the　Magnificent；　and　Gioviano　　Pontano；　with　a　singular　gusto；　those　of　Alfonso　of　Calabria。　The　poem　　in　question　betrays　unconsciously　the　odious　disposition　of　the　　Aragonese　ruler；　in　these　things　too；　he　must　needs　be　the　most　　fortunate；　else　woe　be　to　those　who　are　more　successful！　That　the　　greatest　artists；　for　example　Leonardo；　should　paint　the　mistresses　of　　their　patrons　was　no　more　than　a　matter　of　course。
  But　the　house　of　Este　was　not　satisfied　with　the　praises　of　others；　it　　undertook　to　celebrate　itself。　In　the　Palazzo　Schifanoia　Borso　caused　　himself　to　be　painted　in　a　series　of　historical　representations；　and　　Ercole　（from　1472　on）　kept　the　anniversary　of　his　accession　to　the　　throne　by　a　procession　which　was　compared　to　the　feast　of　Corpus　　Christi；　shops　were　closed　as　on　Sunday；　in　the　centre　of　the　line　　walked　all　the　members　of　the　princely　house　（bastards　included）　clad　　in　embroidered　robes。　That　the　crown　was　the　fountain　of　honour　and　　authority；　that　all　personal　distinction　flowed　from　it　alone；　had　been　　long　expressed　at　this　court　by　the　Order　of　the　Golden　Spur；　an　order　　which　had　nothing　in　common　with　medieval　chivalry。　Ercole　I　added　to　　the　spur　a　sword；　a　goldlaced　mantle；　and　a　grant　of　money；　in　return　　for　which　there　is　no　doubt　that　regular　service　was　required。
  The　patronage　of　art　and　letters　for　which　this　court　has　obtained　a　　world…wide　reputation；　was　exercised　through　the　University；　which　was　　one　of　the　most　perfect　in　Italy；　and　by　the　gift　of　places　in　the　　personal　or　official　service　of　the　prince；　it　involved　consequently　no　　additional　expense。　Boiardo；　as　a　wealthy　country　gentleman　and　high　　official；　belonged　to　this　class。　At　the　time　when　Ariosto　began　to　　distinguish　himself；　there　existed　no　court；　in　the　true　sense　of　the　　word；　either　at　Milan　or　Florence；　and　soon　there　was　none　either　at　　Urbino　or　at　Naples。　He　had　to　content　himself　with　a　place　among　the　　musicians　and　jugglers　of　Cardinal　Ippolito　till　Alfonso　took　him　into　　his　service。　It　was　otherwise　at　a　later　time　with　Torquato　Tasso；　　whose　presence　at　court　was　jealously　sought　after。
  The　Opponents　of　the　Despots
  In　face　of　this　centralized　authority；　all　legal　opposition　within　the　　borders　of　the　State　was　futile。　The　elements　needed　for　the　　restoration　of　a　republic　had　been　for　ever　destroyed；　and　the　field　　prepared　for　violence　and　despotism。　The　nobles；　destitute　of　political　　rights；　even　where　they　held　feudal　possessions；　might　call　themselves　　Guelphs　or　Ghibellines　at　will；　might　dress　up　their　bravos　in　padded　　hose　and　feathered　caps　or　how　else　they　pleased；　thoughtful　men　like　　Machiavelli　knew　well　enough　that　Milan　and　Naples　were　too　'corrupt'　　for　a　republic。　Strange　judgements　fell　on　these　two　so…called　parties；　　which　now　served　only　to　give　official　sanction　to　personal　and　f　　family　disputes。
  An　Italian　prince；　whom　Agrippa　of　Nettesheim　advised　to　put　them　down；　　replied　that　their　quarrels　brought　him　in　more　than　12；000　ducats　a　　year　in　fines。　And　when　in　the　year　1500；　during　the　brief　return　of　　Lodovico　il　Moro　to　his　States；　the　Guelphs　of　Tortona　summoned　a　part　　of　the　neighbouring　French　army　into　the　city；　in　order　to　make　an　end　　once　for　all　of　their　opponents；　the　French　certainly　began　by　　plundering　and　ruining　the　Ghibellines；　but　finished　by　doing　the　same　　to　the　Guelphs；　till　Tortona　was　utterly　laid　waste。　In　Romagna；　the　　hotbed　of　every　ferocious　passion；　these　two　names　had　long　lost　all　　political　meaning。　It　was　a　sign　of　the　political　delusion　of　the　　people　that　they　not　seldom　believed　the　Guelphs　to　be　the　natural　　allies　of　the　French　and　the　Ghibellines　of　the　Spaniards。　It　is　hard　　to　see　that　those　who　tried　to　profit　by　this　error　got　much　by　doing　　so。　France；　after　all　her　interventions；　had　to　abandon　the　peninsula　　at　last；　and　what　became　of　Spain；　after　she　had　destroyed　Italy；　is　　known　to　every　reader。
  But　to　return　to　the　despots　of　the　Renaissance。　A　pure　and　simple　　mind；　we　might　think；　would　perhaps　have　argued　that；　since　all　power　　is　derived　from　God；　these　princes；　if　they　were　loyally　and　honestly　　supported　by　all　their　subjects；　must　in　time　themselves　improve　and　　los　e　all　traces　of　their　violent　origin。　But　from　characters　and　　imaginations　inflamed　by　passion　and　ambition；　reasoning　of　this　kind　　could　not　be　expected。　Like　bad　physicians；　they　thought　to　cure　the　　disease　by　removing　the　symptoms；　and　fancied　that　if　the　tyrant　were　　put　to　death；　freedom　would　follow　of　itself。　Or　else；　without　　reflecting　even　to　this　extent；　they　sought　only　to　give　a　vent　to　the　　universal　hatred；　or　to　take　vengeance　for　some　family　misfortune　or　　personal　affront。　Since　the　governments　were　absolute；　and　free　from　　all　legal　restraints；　the　opposition　chose　its　weapons　with　equal　　freedom。　Boccaccio　declares　openly：　'Shall　I　call　the　tyrant　king　or　　prince；　and　obey　him　loyally　as　my　lord？　No；　for　he　is　the　enemy　of　the　　commonwealth。　Against　him　I　may　use　arms；　conspiracies；　spies；　ambushes　　and　fraud；　to　do　so　is　a　sacred　and　necessary　work。　There　is　no　more　　acceptable　sacrifice　than　the　blood　of　a　tyrant。'　We　need　not　occupy　　ourselves　with　individual　cases；　Machiavelli；　in　a　famous　chapter　of　　his　'Discorsi；'　treats　of　the　conspiracies　of　ancient　and　modern　times　　from　the　days　of　the　Greek　tyrants　downwards；　and　classifies　them　with　　cold…blooded　indifference　according　to　their　various　plans　and　results。　　We　need　make　but　two　observations；　first　on　the　murders　committed　in　　church；　and　next　on　the　influence　of　classical　antiquity。　So　well　was　　the　tyrant　guarded　that　it　was　almost　impossible　to　lay　hands　upon　him　　elsewhere　than　at　solemn　religious　services；　and　on　no　other　occasion　　was　the　whole　family　to　be　found　assembled　together。　It　was　thus　that　　the　Fabrianese　murdered　（1435）　the　members　of　their　ruling　house；　the　　Chiavelli；　during　high　mass；　the　signal　being　given　by　the　words　of　the　　Creed；　'Et　incarnatus　est。'　At　Milan　the　Duke　Giovan　Maria　Visconti　　（1412）　was　assassinated　at　the　entrance　of　the　church　of　San　Gottardo　　Galeazzo　Maria　Sforza　（1476）　in　the　church　of　Santo　Stefano；　and　　Lodovico　il　Moro　only　escaped　（1484）　the　daggers　of　the　adherents　of　　the　widowed　Duchess　Bona；　through　entering　the　church　of　Sant'　Ambrogio　　by　another　door　than　that　by　which　he　was　expected。　There　was　no　　intentional　impiety　in　the　act；　the　assassins　of　Galeazzo　did　not　fail　　to　pray　before　the　murder　to　the　patron　saint　of　the　church；　and　to　　listen　devoutly　to　the　first　mass。　It　was；　however；　one　cause　of　the　　partial　failure　of　the　conspiracy　of　the　Pazzi　against　Lorenzo　and　　Giuliano　Medici　（1478）；　that　the　brigand　Montesecco；　who　had　bargained　　to　commit　the　murder　at　a　banquet；　declined　to　undertake　it　in　the　　Cathedral　of　Florence。　Certain　of　the　clergy　'who　were　familiar　with　　the　sacred　place；　and　consequently　had　no　fear'　were　induced　to　act　in　　his　stead。
  As　to　the　imitation　of　antiquity；　the　influence　of　which　on　moral；　and　　more　especially　on　political；　questions　we　shall　often　refer　to；　the　　example　was　set　by　the　rulers　themselves；　who；　both　i