ises　of　　the　artists　and　writers　who　made　the　fair　princess　a　rich　return　for　　her　patronage；　her　own　letters　show　her　to　us　as　a　woman　of　unshaken　　firmness；　full　of　kindliness　and　humorous　observation。　Bembo；　Bandello；　　Ariosto；　and　Bernardo　Tasso　sent　their　works　to　this　court；　small　and　　powerless　as　it　was；　and　empty　as　they　found　its　treasury。　A　more　　polished　and　charming　circle　was　not　to　be　seen　in　Italy；　since　the　　dissolution　（1508）　of　the　old　Court　of　Urbino；　and　in　one　respect；　in　　freedom　of　movement；　the　society　of　Ferrara　was　inferior　to　that　of　　Mantua。　In　artistic　matters　Isabella　had　an　accurate　knowledge；　and　the　　catalogue　of　her　small　but　choice　collection　can　be　read　by　no　lover　of　　art　without　emotion。
  In　the　great　Federigo　（1444…1482）；　whether　he　were　a　genuine　　Montefeltro　or　not；　Urbino　possessed　a　brilliant　representative　of　the　　princely　order。　As　a　Condottiere　he　shared　the　political　morality　of　　soldiers　of　fortune；　a　morality　of　which　the　fault　does　not　rest　with　　them　alone；　as　ruler　of　his　little　territory　he　adopted　the　plan　of　　spending　at　home　the　money　he　had　earned　abroad；　and　taxing　his　people　　as　lightly　as　possible。　Of　him　and　his　two　successors；　Guidobaldo　and　　Francesco　Maria；　we　read：　'They　erected　buildings；　furthered　the　　cultivation　of　the　land；　lived　at　home；　and　gave　employment　to　a　large　　number　of　people：　their　subjects　loved　them。'　But　not　only　the　State；　　but　the　court　too；　was　a　work　of　art　and　organization；　and　this　in　　every　sense　of　the　word。　Federigo　had　500　persons　in　his　service；　the　　arrangements　of　the　court　were　as　complete　as　in　the　capitals　of　the　　greatest　monarchs；　but　nothing　was　built　quarters　sprang　up　at　the　　bidding　of　the　ruler：　here；　by　the　concentration　of　the　official　　classes　and　the　active　promotion　of　trade；　was　formed　for　the　first　　time　a　true　capital；　wealthy　fugitives　from　all　parts　of　Italy；　　Florentines　especially；　settled　and　built　their　palaces　at　Ferrara。　But　　the　indirect　taxation；　at　all　events；　must　have　reached　a　point　at　　which　it　could　only　just　be　borne。　The　Government；　it　is　true；　took　　measures　of　alleviation　which　were　also　adopted　by　other　Italian　　despots；　such　as　Galeazzo　Maria　Sforza：　in　time　of　famine；　corn　was　　brought　from　a　distance　and　seems　to　have　been　distributed　　gratuitously；　but　in　ordinary　times　it　compensated　itself　by　the　　monopoly；　if　not　of　corn；　of　many　other　of　the　necessaries　of　life　　fish；　salt；　meat；　fruit　and　vegetables；　which　last　were　carefully　　planted　on　and　ne　ar　the　walls　of　the　city。　The　most　considerable　　source　of　income；　however；　was　the　annual　sale　of　public　offices；　a　　usage　which　was　common　throughout　Italy；　and　about　the　working　of　which　　at　Ferrara　we　have　more　precise　information。　We　read；　for　example；　that　　at　the　new　year　1502　the　majority　of　the　officials　bought　their　places　　at　'prezzi　salati'　（pungent　prices）；　public　servants　of　the　most　　various　kinds；　custom…house　officers；　bailiffs　（massari）；　notaries；　　'podesta；'　judges；　and　even　governors　of　provincial　towns　are　quoted　by　　name。　As　one　of　the　'devourers　of　the　people'　who　paid　dearly　for　their　　places；　and　who　were　'hated　worse　than　the　devil；'　Tito　Strozza　let　us　　hope　not　the　famous　Latin　poet　is　mentioned。　About　the　same　time　every　　year　the　dukes　were　accustomed　to　make　a　round　of　visits　in　Ferrara；　　the　so…called　'andar　per　ventura；'　in　which　they　took　presents　from；　at　　any　rate；　the　more　wealthy　citizens。　The　gifts；　however；　did　not　　consist　of　money；　but　of　natural　products。
  It　was　the　pride　of　the　duke　for　all　Italy　to　know　that　at　Ferrara　the　　soldiers　received　their　pay　and　the　professors　at　the　University　their　　salary　not　a　day　later　than　it　was　due；　that　the　soldiers　never　dared　　lay　arbitrary　hands　on　citizen　or　peasant；　that　the　town　was　　impregnable　to　assault；　and　that　vast　sums　of　coined　money　were　stored　　up　in　the　citadel。　To　keep　two　sets　of　accounts　seemed　unnecessary：　the　　Minister　of　Finance　was　at　the　same　time　manager　of　the　ducal　　household。　The　buildings　erected　by　Borso　（1430…1471）；　by　Ercole　I　　（till　1505）；　and　by　Alfonso　I　（till　1534）；　were　very　numerous；　but　of　　small　size；　they　are　characteristic　of　a　princely　house　which；　with　all　　its　love　of　splendor　Borso　never　appeared　but　in　embroidery　and　jewels　　indulged　in　no　ill…considered　expense。　Alfonso　may　perhaps　have　　foreseen　the　fate　which　was　in　store　for　his　charming　little　villas；　　the　Belvedere　with　its　shady　gardens；　and　Montana　with　its　fountains　　and　beautiful　frescoes。
  It　is　undeniable　that　the　dangers　to　which　these　princes　were　　constantly　exposed　developed　in　them　capacities　of　a　remarkable　kind。　　In　so　artificial　a　world　only　a　man　of　consummate　address　could　hope　to　　succeed；　each　candidate　for　distinction　was　forced　to　make　good　his　　claims　by　personal　merit　and　show　himself　worthy　of　the　crown　he　　sought。　Their　characters　are　not　without　dark　sides；　but　in　all　of　them　　lives　something　of　those　qualities　which　Italy　then　pursued　as　its　　ideal。　What　European　monarch　of　the　time　labored　for　his　own　culture　　as；　for　instance；　Alfonso　I？　His　travels　in　France；　England；　and　the　　Netherlands　we　re　undertaken　for　the　purpose　of　study：　by　means　of　them　　he　gained　an　accurate　knowledge　of　the　industry　and　commerce　of　these　　countries。　It　is　ridiculous　to　reproach　him　with　the　turner's　work　　which　he　practiced　in　his　leisure　hours；　connected　as　it　was　with　his　　skill　in　the　casting　of　cannon；　and　with　the　unprejudiced　freedom　with　　which　he　surrounded　himself　by　masters　of　every　art。　The　Italian　　princes　were　not；　like　their　contemporaries　in　the　North；　dependent　on　　the　society　of　an　aristocracy　which　held　itself　to　be　the　only　class　　worth　consideration；　and　which　infected　the　monarch　with　the　same　　conceit。　In　Italy　the　prince　was　permitted　and　compelled　to　know　and　to　　use　men　of　every　grade　in　society；　and　the　nobility；　though　by　birth　a　　caste；　were　forced　in　social　intercourse　to　stand　up　on　their　personal　　qualifications　alone。　But　this　is　a　point　which　we　shall　discuss　more　　fully　in　the　sequel。　The　feeling　of　the　Ferrarese　towards　the　ruling　　house　was　a　strange　compound　of　silent　dread；　of　the　truly　Italian　　sense　of　well…calculated　interest；　and　of　the　loyalty　of　the　modern　　subject：　personal　admiration　was　transferred　into　a　new　sentiment　of　　duty。　The　city　of　Ferrara　raised　in　1451　a　bronze　equestrian　statue　to　　their　Prince　Niccolo；　who　had　died　ten　years　earlier；　Borso　（1454）　did　　not　scruple　to　place　his　own　statue；　also　of　bronze；　but　in　a　sitting　　posture；　hard　by　in　the　market；　in　addition　to　which　the　city；　at　the　　beginning　of　his　reign；　decreed　to　him　a　'marble　triumphal　pillar　。'　A　　citizen　who；　when　abroad　in　Venice；　had　spoken　ill　of　Borso　in　public；　　was　informed　against　on　his　return　home；　and　condemned　to　banishment　　and　the　confiscation　of　his　goods；　a　loyal　subject　was　with　difficulty　　restrained　from　cutting　him　down　before　the　tribunal　itself；　and　with　a　　rope　round　his　neck　the　offender　went　to　the　duke　and　begged　for　a　full　　pardon。　The　government　was　well　provided　with　spies；　and　the　duke　　inspected　personally　the　daily　list　of　travellers　which　the　innkeepers　　were　strictly　ordered　to　present。　Under　Borso；　who　was　anxious　to　leave　　no　distinguished　stranger　unhonored；　this　regulation　served　a　　hospitable　purpose；　Ercole　I　used　it　simply　as　a　measure　of　precaution。　　In　Bologna；　too；　it　was　then　the　rule；　under　Giovanni　II　Bentivoglio；　　that　every　passing　traveller　who　entered　at　one　gate　must　obtain　a　　ticket　in　order　to　go　out　at　another。　An　unfailing　means　of　popularity　　was　the　sudden　dismissal　of　oppressive　officials。　When　Borso　arrested　　in　person　his　chief　and　confidential　counsellors；　when　Ercole　I　removed　　and　disgraced　a　tax…gatherer　who　for　years　had　been　sucking　the　blood　　of　the　people；　bonfires　were　lighted　and　the　bells　were　pealed　in　their　　honour。　With　one　of　his　servants；　however；　Ercole　let　things　go　too　　far。　The　director　of　the　police；　or　by　whatever　name　we　should　choose　　to　call　him　（Capitano　di　Giustizia）；　was　Gregorio　Zampante　of　Lucca；　a　　native　being　unsuited　for　an　office　of　this　kind。　Even　the　sons　and　　brothers　of　the　duke　trembled　before　this　man；　the　fines　he　inflicted　　amounted　to　hundreds　and　thousands　of　ducats；　and　torture　was　applied　　even　before　the　hearing　of　a　case：　bribes　were　accepted　from　wealthy　　criminals；　and　their　pardon　obtained　from　the　duke　by　false　　representations。　Gladly　would　the　people　have　paid　any　sum　to　their　　ruler　for　sending　away　the　'enemy　of　God　and　man。'　But　Ercole　had　　knighted　him　and　made　him　godfather　to　his　children；　and　year　by　year　　Zampante　laid　by　2；000　ducats。　He　dared　only　eat　pigeons　bred　in　his　　own　house；　and　could　not　cross　the　street　without　a　band　of　archers　and　　bravos。　It　was　time　to　get　rid　of　him；　in　1496　two　students；　and　a　　converted　Jew　whom　he　had　mortally　offended；　killed　him　in　his　house　　while　taking　his　siesta；　and　then　rode　through　the　town　on　horses　held　　in　waiting；　raising　the　cry；　'Come　out！　come　out！　we　have　slain　　Zampante！'　The　pursuers　came　too　late；　and　found　them　already　safe　　across　the　frontier。　Of　course　it　now　rained　satires　some　of　them　in　　the　form　of　sonnets；　others　of　odes。
  It　was　wholly　in　th