influence　of　the　stars；　and　offering　prayers　at　one　and　the　same　time　　to　helpers　of　every　sort；　he　was　a　student　of　the　ancient　authors；　as　　well　as　of　French　tales　of　chivalry。　And　yet　the　same　man；　who　would　　never　suffer　death　to　be　mentioned　in　his　presence；　and　caused　his　　dying　favorites　to　be　removed　from　the　castle；　that　no　shadow　might　　fall　on　the　abode　of　happiness；　deliberately　hastened　his　own　death　by　　closing　up　a　wound；　and；　refusing　to　be　bled；　died　at　last　with　dignity　　and　grace。
  His　son…in…law　and　successor；　the　fortunate　Condottiere　Francesco　　Sforza　（1450…　1466）；　was　perhaps　of　all　the　Italians　of　the　fifteenth　　century　the　man　most　after　the　heart　of　his　age。　Never　was　the　triumph　　of　genius　and　individual　power　more　brilliantly　displayed　than　in　him；　　and　those　who　would　P。et　recognize　his　merit　were　at　least　forced　to　　wonder　at　him　as　the　spoilt　child　of　fortune。　The　Milanese　claimed　it　　openly　as　an　honour　to　be　governed　by　so　distinguished　a　master；　when　　he　entered　the　city　the　thronging　populace　bore　him　on　horseback　into　　the　cathedral；　without　giving　him　the　chance　to　dismount。　Let　us　listen　　t　o　the　balance…sheet　of　his　life；　in　the　estimate　of　Pope　Pius　II；　a　　judge　in　such　matters：　'In　the　year　1459；　when　the　Duke　came　to　the　　congress　at　Mantua；　he　was　60　（really　58）　years　old；　on　horseback　he　　looked　like　a　young　man；　of　a　lofty　and　imposing　figure；　with　serious　　features；　calm　and　affable　in　conversation；　princely　in　his　whole　　bearing；　with　a　combination　of　bodily　and　intellectual　gifts　unrivalled　　in　our　time；　unconquered　on　the　field　of　battle　…　such　was　the　man　who　　raised　himself　from　a　humble　position　to　the　control　of　an　empire。　His　　wife　was　beautiful　and　virtuous；　his　children　were　like　the　angels　of　　heaven；　he　was　seldom　ill；　and　all　his　chief　wishes　were　fulfilled。　And　　yet　he　was　not　without　misfortune。　His　wife；　out　of　jealousy；　killed　　his　mistress；　his　old　comrades　and　friends；　Troilo　and　Brunoro；　　abandoned　him　and　went　over　to　King　Alfonso；　another；　Ciarpollone；　he　　was　forced　to　hang　for　treason；　he　had　to　suffer　it　that　his　brother　　Alessandro　set　the　French　upon　him；　one　of　his　sons　formed　intrigues　　against　him；　and　was　imprisoned；　the　March　of　Ancona；　which　he　h　ad　won　　in　war；　he　lost　again　the　same　way。　No　man　enjoys　so　unclouded　a　　fortune　that　he　has　not　somewhere　to　struggle　with　adversity。　He　is　　happy　who　has　but　few　troubles。'　With　this　negative　definition　of　　happiness　the　learned　Pope　dismisses　the　reader。　Had　he　been　able　to　　see　into　the　future；　or　been　willing　to　stop　and　discuss　the　　consequences　of　an　uncontrolled　despotism；　one　pervading　fact　would　not　　have　escaped　his　notice　the　absence　of　all　guarantee　for　the　future。　　Those　children；　beautiful　as　angels；　carefully　and　thoroughly　educated　　as　they　were；　fell　victims；　when　they　grew　up；　to　the　corruption　of　a　　measureless　egotism。　Galeazzo　Maria　（1466…1476）；　solicitous　only　of　　outward　effect；　too　k　pride　in　the　beauty　of　his　hands；　in　the　high　　salaries　he　paid；　in　the　financial　credit　he　enjoyed；　in　his　treasure　　of　two　million　pieces　of　gold；　in　the　distinguished　people　who　　surrounded　him；　and　in　the　army　and　birds　of　chase　which　he　maintained。　　He　was　fond　of　the　sound　of　his　own　voice；　and　spoke　well；　most　　fluently；　perhaps；　when　he　had　the　chance　of　insulting　a　Venetian　　ambassador。　He　was　subject　to　caprices；　such　as　having　a　room　painted　　with　figures　in　a　single　night；　and；　what　was　worse；　to　fits　of　　senseless　debauchery　and　of　revolting　cruelty　to　his　nearest　friends。　　To　a　handful　of　enthusiasts；　he　seemed　a　tyrant　too　bad　to　live；　they　　murdered　him；　and　thereby　delivered　the　State　into　the　power　of　his　　brothers；　one　of　whom；　Lodovico　il　Moro；　threw　his　nephew　into　prison；　　and　took　the　government　into　his　own　hands。　From　this　usurpation　　followed　the　French　intervention；　and　the　disasters　which　befell　the　　whole　of　Italy。
  Lodovico　Sforza；　called　'il　Moro；'　the　Moor；　is　the　most　perfect　type　　of　the　despot　of　that　age；　and；　as　a　kind　of　natural　product；　almost　　disarms　our　moral　judgement。　Notwithstanding　the　profound　immorality　of　　the　means　he　employed；　he　used　them　with　perfect　ingenuousness；　no　o　ne　　would　probably　have　been　more　astonished　than　himself　to　learn　that　for　　the　choice　of　means　as　well　as　of　ends　a　human　being　is　　morally。responsible；　he　would　rather　have　reckoned　it　as　a　singular　　virtue　that；　so　far　as　possible；　he　had　abstained　from　too　free　a　use　　of　the　punishment　of　death。　He　accepted　as　no　more　than　his　due　the　　almost　fabulous　respect　of　the　Italians　for　his　political　genius。　In　　1486　he　boasted　that　the　Pope　Alexander　was　his　chaplain；　the　Emperor　　Maximilian　his　Condottiere；　Venice　his　chamberlain；　and　the　King　of　　France　his　courier；　who　must　come　and　go　at　his　bidding。　With　marvelous　　presence　of　mind　he　weighed；　even　in　his　last　extremity　（1499）；　a　　possible　means　of　escape；　and　at　length　he　decided；　to　his　honour；　to　　trust　to　the　goodness　of　human　nature；　he　rejected　the　proposal　of　his　　brother；　the　Cardinal　Ascanio；　who　wished　to　remain　in　the　Citadel　of　　Milan；　on　the　ground　of　a　former　quarrel：　'Monsignore；　take　it　not　ill；　　but　I　trust　you　not；　brother　though　you　be'；　and　appointed　to　the　　command　of　the　castle；　'that　pledge　of　his　return　；'　a　man　to　whom　he　　had　always　done　good；　but　who　nevertheless　betrayed　him。　At　home　the　　Moor　was　a　good　and　useful　ruler；　and　to　the　last　he　reckoned　on　his　　popularity　both　in　Milan　and　in　Como。　In　later　years　（after　1496）　he　　had　overstrained　the　resources　of　his　State；　and　at　Cremona　had　　ordered；　out　of　pure　expediency；　a　respectable　citizen；　who　had　spoken　　again　st　the　new　taxes；　to　be　quietly　strangled。　Since　that　time；　in　　holding　audiences；　he　kept　his　visitors　away　from　his　person　by　means　　of　a　bar；　so　that　in　conversing　with　him　they　were　compelled　to　speak　　at　the　top　of　their　voices。　At　his　court；　the　most　brilliant　in　Europe；　　since　that　of　Burgundy　had　ceased　to　exist；　immorality　of　the　worst　　kind　was　prevalent；　the　daughter　was　sold　by　the　father；　the　wife　by　　the　husband；　the　sister　by　the　brother。　The　Prince　himself　was　　incessantly　active；　and；　as　son　of　his　own　deeds；　claimed　relationship　　with　all　who；　like　himself；　stood　on　their　personal　merits　with　　scholars；　poets；　artists；　and　musicians。　The　academy　which　he　founded　6　　served　rather　for　his　own　purposes　than　for　the　instruction　of　　scholars；　nor　was　it　the　fame　of　the　distinguished　men　who　surrounded　　him　which　he　heeded；　so　much　as　their　society　and　their　services。　It　is　　certain　that　Bramante　was　scantily　paid　at　first；　Leonardo；　on　the　　other　hand；　was　up　to　1496　suitably　remunerated　and　besides；　what　kept　　him　at　the　court；　if　not　his　own　free　will　The　world　lay　open　to　him；　　as　perhaps　to　no　other　mortal　man　of　that　day；　and　if　proof　were　　wanting　of　the　loftier　element　in　the　nature　of　Lodovico　il　Moro；　it　is　　found　in　the　long　stay　of　the　enigmatic　master　at　his　court。　That　　afterwards　Leonardo　entered　the　service　of　Cesare　Borgia　and　Francis　I　　was　probably　due　to　the　interest　he　felt　in　the　unusual　and　striking　　character　of　the　two　men。
  After　the　fall　of　the　Moor；　his　sons　were　badly　brought　up　among　　strangers。　The　elder；　Massimiliano；　had　no　resemblance　to　him；　the　　younger；　Francesco；　was　at　all　events　not　without　spirit。　Milan；　which　　in　those　years　changed　its　rulers　so　often；　and　suffered　so　unspeakably　　in　t　he　change；　endeavored　to　secure　itself　against　a　reaction。　In　the　　year　1512　the　French；　retreating　before　the　arms　of　Maximilian　and　the　　Spaniards；　were　induced　to　make　a　declaration　that　the　Milanese　had　　taken　no　part　in　their　expulsion；　and；　without　being　guilty　of　　rebellion；　might　yield　themselves　to　a　new　conqueror。　It　is　a　f　act　of　　some　political　importance　that　in　such　moments　of　transition　the　　unhappy　city；　like　Naples　at　the　flight　of　the　Aragonese；　was　apt　to　　fall　a　prey　to　gangs　of　（often　highly　aristocratic）　scoundrels。
  The　house　of　Gonzaga　at　Mantua　and　that　of　Montefeltro　of　Urbino　were　　among　the　best　ordered　and　richest　in　men　of　ability　during　the　second　　half　of　the　fifteenth　century。　The　Gonzaga　were　a　tolerably　harmonious　　family；　for　a　long　period　no　murder　had　been　known　among　them；　and　　their　dead　could　be　shown　to　the　world　without　fear。7　The　Marquis　　Francesco　Gonzaga　and　his　wife；　Isabella　of　Este；　in　spite　of　some　few　　irregularities；　were　a　united　and　respectable　couple；　and　brought　up　　their　sons　to　be　successful　and　remarkable　men　at　a　time　when　their　　small　but　most　important　State　was　exposed　to　incessant　danger。　That　　Francesco；　either　as　statesman　or　as　soldier；　should　adopt　a　policy　of　　exceptional　honesty；　was　what　neither　the　Emperor；　nor　Venice；　nor　the　　King　of　France　could　have　expected　or　desired；　but　certainly　since　the　　battle　of　the　Taro　（1495）；　so　far　as　military　honour　was　concerned；　he　　felt　and　acted　as　an　Italian　patriot；　and　imparted　the　same　spirit　to　　his　wife。　Every　deed　of　loyalty　and　heroism；　such　as　the　defence　of　　Faenza　against　Cesare　Borgia；　she　felt　as　a　vindication　of　the　honour　　of　Italy。　Our　judgement　of　her　does　not　need　to　rest　on　the　praises　of　　the　artists　and　writers　who　made　the　fair　princess　a　rich　return　for　　her　patronage；　her　ow