ained　as　he　was　　with　fratricide　and　every　other　abomination。　Thirty　years　later　the　　Malatesta　were　penniless　exiles。　In　the　year　1527；　as　in　the　time　of　　Cesare　Borgia；　a　sort　of　epidemic　fell　on　the　petty　tyrants；　few　of　　them　outlived　this　date；　and　none　to　t　heir　own　good。　At　Mirandola；　　which　was　governed　by　insignificant　princes　of　the　house　of　Pico；　lived　　in　the　year　1533　a　poor　scholar；　Lilio　Gregorio　Giraldi；　who　had　fled　　from　the　sack　of　Rome　to　the　hospitable　hearth　of　the　aged　Giovanni　　Francesco　Pico；　nephew　of　the　famous　Giovanni；　the　discussions　as　to　　the　sepulchral　monument　which　the　prince　was　constructing　f　or　himself　　gave　rise　to　a　treatise；　the　dedication　of　which　bears　the　date　of　　April　of　this　year。　The　postscript　is　a　sad　one。　In　October　of　the　same　　year　the　unhappy　prince　was　attacked　in　the　night　and　robbed　of　life　　and　throne　by　his　brother's　son；　and　I　myself　escaped　narrowly；　and　am　　now　in　the　deepest　misery。'
  A　near…despotism；　without　morals　or　principles；　such　as　Pandolfo　　Petrucci　exercised　from　after　1490　in　Siena；　then　torn　by　faction；　is　　hardly　worth　a　closer　consideration。　Insignificant　and　malicious；　he　　governed　with　the　help　of　a　professor　of　juris　prudence　and　of　an　　astrologer；　and　frightened　his　people　by　an　occasional　murder。　His　　pastime　in　the　summer　months　was　to　roll　blocks　of　stone　from　the　top　　of　Monte　Amiata；　without　caring　what　or　whom　they　hit。　After　　succeeding；　where　the　most　prudent　failed；　in　escaping　from　the　devices　　of　Cesare　Borgia；　he　died　at　last　forsaken　and　despised。　His　sons　　maintained　a　qualified　supremacy　for　many　years　afterwards。
  The　Greater　Dynasties
  In　treating　of　the　chief　dynasties　of　Italy；　it　is　convenient　t　discuss　　the　Aragonese；　on　account　of　its　special　character；　apart　from　the　　rest。　The　feudal　system；　which　from　the　days　of　the　Nor　mans　had　　survived　in　the　form　of　a　territorial　supremacy　of　the　Barons；　gave　a　　distinctive　color　to　the　political　constitution　of　Naples；　while　　elsewhere　in　Italy；　excepting　only　in　the　southern　part　of　the　　ecclesiastical　dominion；　and　in　a　few　other　districts；　a　direct　tenure　　of　land　prevailed；　and　no　hereditary　powers　were　permitted　by　the　law。　　The　great　Alfonso；　who　reigned　in　Naples　from　1435　onwards　（d。　1458）；　　was　a　man　of　another　kind　than　his　real　or　alleged　descendants。　　Brilliant　in　his　whole　existence；　fearless　in　mixing　with　his　people；　　dignified　and　affable　in　intercourse；　admired　rather　than　blamed　even　　for　his　old　man's　passion　for　Lucrezia　d'Alagno；　he　had　the　one　bad　　quality　of　extravagance；　from　which；　however；　the　natural　consequence　　followed。　Unscrupulous　financiers　were　long　omnipotent　at　Court；　till　　the　bankrupt　king　robbed　them　of　their　spoils；　a　crusade　was　preached　　as　a　pretext　for　taxing　the　clergy；　when　a　great　earthquake　happened　in　　the　Abruzzi；　the　survivors　were　compelled　to　make　good　the　　contributions　of　the　dead。　By　such　means　Alfonso　was　able　to　entertain　　distinguished　guests　with　unrivalled　splendor；　he　found　pleasure　in　　ceaseless　expense；　even　for　the　benefit　of　his　enemies；　and　in　　rewarding　literary　work　knew　absolutely　no　measure。　Poggio　received　500　　pieces　of　gold　for　translating　Xenophon's　'Cyropaedeia'　into　Latin。
  Ferrante；　who　succeeded　him；　passed　as　his　illegitimate　son　by　a　　Spanish　lady；　but　was　not　improbably　the　son　of　a　half…caste　Moor　of　　Valencia。　Whether　it　was　his　blood　or　the　plots　formed　against　his　life　　by　the　barons　which　embittered　and　darkened　his　nature；　it　is　certain　　that　he　was　equalled　in　ferocity　by　none　among　the　princes　of　his　time。　　Restlessly　active；　recognized　as　one　of　the　most　powerful　political　　minds　of　the　day；　and　free　from　the　vices　of　the　profligate；　he　　concentrated　all　his　powers；　among　which　must　be　reckoned　profound　　dissimulation　and　an　irreconcilable　spirit　of　vengeance；　on　the　　destruction　of　his　opponents。　He　had　been　wounded　in　every　point　in　　which　a　ruler　is　open　to　offence；　for　the　leaders　of　the　barons；　though　　related　to　him　by　marriage；　were　yet　the　allies　of　his　foreign　enemies。　　Extreme　measures　became　part　of　his　daily　policy。　The　means　for　this　　struggle　with　his　barons；　and　for　his　external　wars；　were　exacted　in　　the　same　Mohammedan　fashion　which　Frederick　II　had　introduced：　the　　Government　alone　dealt　in　oil　and　corn；　the　whole　commerce　of　the　　country　was　put　by　Ferrante　into　the　hands　of　a　wealthy　merchant；　　Francesco　Coppola；　who　had　entire　control　of　the　anchorage　on　the　　coast；　and　shared　the　profits　with　the　King。　Deficits　were　made　up　by　　forced　loans；　by　executions　and　confiscations；　by　open　simony；　and　by　　contributions　levied　on　the　ecclesiastical　corporations。　Besides　　hunting；　which　he　practiced　regardless　of　all　rights　of　property；　his　　pleasures　were　of　two　kinds：　he　liked　to　have　his　opponents　near　him；　　either　alive　in　well…guarded　prisons；　or　dead　and　embalmed；　dressed　in　　the　costume　which　they　wore　in　their　lifetime。　He　would　chuckle　in　　talking　of　the　captives　with　his　friends；　and　make　no　secret　whatever　　of　the　museum　of　mummies。　His　victims　were　mostly　men　whom　he　had　got　　into　his　power　by　treachery；　some　w　ere　even　seized　while　guests　at　the　　royal　table。　His　conduct　to　his　prime　minister；　Antonello　Petrucci；　who　　had　grown　sick　and　grey　in　his　service；　and　from　whose　increasing　fear　　of　death　he　extorted　'present　after　present；'　was　literally　devilish。　　At　length　a　suspicion　of　complicity　with　the　last　conspiracy　of　the　　barons　gave　the　pretext　for　his　arrest　and　execution。　With　him　died　　Coppola。　The　way　in　which　all　this　is　narrated　in　Caracciolo　and　Porzio　　makes　one's　hair　stand　on　end。
  The　elder　of　the　King's　sons；　Alfonso；　Duke　of　Calabria；　enjoyed　in　　later　years　a　kind　of　co…regency　with　his　father。　He　was　a　savage；　　brutal　profligate；　who　in　point　of　frankness　alone　had　the　advantage　of　　Ferrante；　and　who　openly　avowed　his　contempt　for　religion　and　its　　usages　。　The　better　and　nobler　features　of　the　Italian　despotisms　are　　not　to　be　found　among　the　princes　of　this　line；　all　that　they　possessed　　of　the　art　and　culture　of　their　time　served　the　purpose　of　luxury　or　　display。　Even　the　genuine　Spaniards　seem　to　have　almost　always　　degenerated　in　Italy；　but　the　end　of　this　cross…bred　house　（1494　and　　1503）　gives　clear　proof　of　a　want　of　blood。　Ferrante　died　of　mental　　care　and　trouble；　Alfonso　accused　his　brother　Federigo；　the　only　honest　　member　of　the　family；　of　treason；　and　insulted　him　in　the　vilest　　manner。　At　length；　though　he　had　hitherto　passed　for　one　of　the　ablest　　generals　in　Italy；　he　lost　his　head　and　fled　to　Sicily；　leaving　his　　son；　the　younger　Ferrante；　a　prey　to　the　French　and　to　domestic　　treason。　A　dynasty　which　had　ruled　as　this　had　done　must　at　least　have　　sold　its　life　dear；　if　its　children　were　ever　to　hope　for　a　　restoration。　But；　as　Comines　one…sidedly；　and　yet　on　the　whole　rightly　　observes　on　this　occasion；　'_Jamais　homme　cruel　ne　fut　hardi_'：　there　　was　never　a　more　cruel　man。
  The　despotism　of　the　Dukes　of　Milan；　whose　government　from　the　time　of　　Giangaleazzo　onwards　was　an　absolute　monarchy　of　the　most　thorough…　going　sort；　shows　the　genuine　Italian　character　of　the　fifteenth　　century。　The　last　of　the　Visconti　Filippo　Maria　（1412…1447）；　is　a　　character　of　peculiar　interest；　and　of　which　fortunately　an　admirable　　description　has　been　left　us。　What　a　man　of　uncommon　gifts　and　high　　position　can　be　made　by　the　passion　of　fear；　is　here　shown　with　what　　may　be　called　a　mathematical　completeness。　All　the　resources　of　the　　State　were　devoted　to　the　one　end　of　securing　his　personal　safety；　　though　happily　his　cruel　egotism　did　not　degenerate　into　a　purposeless　　thirst　for　blood。　He　lived　in　the　Citadel　of　Milan；　surrounded　by　　magnificent　gardens；　arbors；　and　lawns。　For　years　he　never　set　foot　in　　the　city；　making　his　excursions　only　in　the　country；　where　lay　several　　of　his　splendid　castles；　the　flotilla　which；　drawn　by　the　swiftest　　horses；　conducted　him　to　them　along　canals　constructed　for　the　purpose；　　was　so　arranged　as　to　allow　of　the　application　of　the　most　rigorous　　etiquette。　Whoever　entered　the　citadel　was　watched　by　a　hundred　eyes；　　it　was　forbidden　even　to　stand　at　the　window；　lest　signs　should　be　　given　to　those　without。　All　who　were　admitted　among　the　personal　　followers　of　the　Prince　were　subjected　to　a　series　of　the　strictest　　examinations；　then；　once　accepted；　were　charged　with　the　highest　　diplomatic　commissions；　as　well　as　with　the　humblest　personal　services　　both　in　this　Court　being　alike　honorable。　And　this　was　the　man　who　　conducted　long　and　difficult　wars；　who　dealt　habitually　with　political　　affairs　of　the　first　importance；　and　every　day　sent　his　　plenipotentiaries　to　all　parts　of　Italy。　His　safety　lay　in　the　fact　　that　none　of　his　servants　trusted　the　others；　that　his　Condottieri　were　　watched　and　misled　by　spies；　and　that　the　ambassadors　and　higher　　officials　were　baffled　and　kept　apart　by　artificially　nourished　　jealousies；　and　in　particular　by　the　device　of　coupling　an　honest　man　　with　a　knave。　His　inward　faith；　too；　rested　upon　opposed　and　　contradictory　systems；　he　believed　in　blind　necessity；　and　in　the　　influence　of　the　stars；　and　offering　prayers　at　one　and　the　same　time　　to　helpers　of　every　sort；　he