od…forsaken　existence。　When　the　last　Carrara　　could　no　longer　defend　the　walls　and　gates　of　the　plague…stricken　　Padua；　hemmed　in　on　all　sides　by　the　Venetians　（1405）；　the　soldiers　of　　the　guard　heard　him　cry　to　the　devil　'to　come　and　kill　him。'
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  The　most　complete　and　instructive　type　of　the　tyranny　of　the　fourteenth　　century　is　to　be　found　unquestionably　among　the　Visconti　of　Milan；　from　　the　death　of　the　Archbishop　Giovanni　onwards　（1354）。　The　family　　likeness　which　shows　itself　between　Bernabo　and　the　worst　of　the　Roman　　Emperors　is　unmistakable；　the　most　important　public　object　was　the　　prince's　boar…hunting；　whoever　interfered　with　it　was　put　to　death　with　　torture；　the　terrified　people　were　forced　to　maintain　5；000　boar　　hounds；　with　strict　responsibility　for　their　health　and　safety。　The　　taxes　were　extorted　by　every　conceivable　sort　of　compulsion；　seven　　daughters　of　the　prince　received　a　dowry　of　100；000　gold　florins　　apiece；　and　an　enormous　treasure　was　collected。　On　the　death　of　his　　wife　（1384）　an　order　was　issued　'to　the　subjects'　to　share　his　grief；　　as　once　they　had　shared　his　joy；　and　to　wear　mourning　for　a　year。　The　　_coup　de　main_　（1385）　by　which　his　nephew　Giangaleazzo　got　him　into　his　　powerone　of　those　brilliant　plots　which　make　the　heart　of　even　late　　historians　beat　more　quickly　was　strikingly　characteristic　of　the　man　。
  In　Giangaleazzo　that　passion　for　the　colossal　which　was　common　to　most　　of　the　despots　shows　itself　on　the　largest　scale。　He　undertook；　at　the　　cost　of　300；000　golden　florins；　the　construction　of　gigantic　dikes；　to　　divert　in　case　of　need　the　Mincio　from　Mantua　and　the　Brenta　from　　Padua；　and　thus　to　render　these　cities　defenseless。　It　is　not　　impossible；　indeed；　that　he　thought　of　draining　away　the　lagoons　of　　Venice。　He　founded　that　most　wonderful　of　all　convents；　the　Certosa　of　　Pavia　and　the　cathedral　of　Milan；　'which　exceeds　in　size　and　splendor　　all　the　churches　of　Christendom。'　The　palace　in　Pavia；　which　his　father　　Galeazzo　began　and　which　he　himself　finished；　was　probably　by　far　the　　most　magnificent　of　the　princely　dwellings　of　Europe。　There　he　　transferred　his　famous　library；　and　the　great　collection　of　relics　of　　the　saints；　in　which　he　placed　a　peculiar　faith。　It　would　have　been　　strange　indeed　if　a　prince　of　this　character　had　not　also　cherished　the　　highest　ambitions　in　political　matters。　King　Wenceslaus　made　him　Duke　　（1395）；　he　was　hoping　for　nothing　less　than　the　Kingdom　of　Italy　or　the　　Imperial　crown；　when　（1402）　he　fell　ill　and　died。　His　whole　territories　　are　said　to　have　paid　him　in　a　single　year；　besides　the　regular　　contribution　of　1；200；000　gold　florins；　no　less　than　800；000　more　in　　extraordinary　subsidies。　After　his　death　the　dominions　which　he　had　　brought　together　by　every　sort　of　violence　fell　to　pieces：　and　for　a　　time　even　the　original　nucleus　could　with　difficulty　be　maintained　by　　his　successors。　What　might　have　become　of　his　sons　Giovanni　Maria　（died　　1412）　and　Filippo　Maria　（died　1447）；　had　they　lived　in　a　different　　country　and　under　other　traditions；　cannot　be　said。　But；　as　heirs　of　　their　house；　they　inherited　that　monstrous　capital　of　cruelty　and　　cowardice　which　had　been　accumulated　from　generation　to　generation。
  Giovanni　Maria；　too；　is　famed　for　his　dogs；　which　were　no　longer；　　however；　used　for　hunting　but　for　tearing　human　bodies。　Tradition　has　　preserved　their　names；　like　those　of　the　bears　of　Emperor　Valentinian　　I。　In　May；　1409；　when　war　was　going　on；　and　the　starving　populace　cried　　to　him　in　the　streets；　_Pace！　Pace！_　he　let　loose　his　mercenaries　upon　　them；　and　200　lives　were　sacrificed；　under　penalty　of　the　gallows　it　　was　forbidden　to　utter　the　words　pace　and　guerra；　and　the　priests　were　　ordered；　instead　of　_dona　nobis　pacem_；　to　say　_tranquillitatem_！　At　　last　a　band　of　conspirators　took　advantage　of　the　moment　when　Facino　　Cane；　the　chief　Condotierre　of　the　insane　ruler；　lay　in　at　Pavia；　and　　cut　down　Giovanni　Maria　in　the　church　of　San　Gottardo　at　Milan；　the　　dying　Facino　on　the　same　day　made　his　officers　swear　to　stand　by　the　　heir　Filippo　Maria；　whom　he　himself　urged　his　wife　to　take　for　a　second　　husband。　His　wife；　Beatrice　di　Tenda；　followed　his　advice。　We　shall　　have　occasion　to　speak　of　Filippo　Maria　later　on。
  And　in　times　like　these　Cola　di　Rienzi　was　dreaming　of　founding　on　the　　rickety　enthusiasm　of　the　corrupt　population　of　Rome　a　new　State　which　　was　to　comprise　all　Italy。　By　the　side　of　rulers　such　as　those　whom　we　　have　described；　he　seems　no　better　than　a　poor　deluded　fool。
  Despots　of　the　Fifteenth　Century
  The　despotisms　of　the　fifteenth　century　show　an　altered　character。　Many　　of　the　less　important　tyrants；　and　some　of　the　greater；　like　the　Scala　　and　the　Carrara　had　disappeared；　while　the　more　powerful　ones；　　aggrandized　by　conquest；　had　given　to　their　systems　each　its　　characteristic　development。　Naples　for　example　received　a　fresh　and　　stronger　impulse　from　the　new　Aragonese　dynasty。　A　striking　feature　of　　this　epoch　is　the　attempt　of　the　Condottieri　to　found　independent　　dynasties　of　their　own。　Facts　and　the　actual　relations　of　things；　apart　　from　traditional　estimates；　are　alone　regarded；　talent　and　audacity　win　　the　great　prizes。　The　petty　despots；　to　secure　a　trustworthy　support；　　begin　to　enter　the　service　of　the　larger　States；　and　become　themselves　　Condottieri；　receiving　in　return　for　their　services　money　and　immunity　　for　their　misdeeds；　if　not　an　increase　of　territory。　All；　whether　small　　or　great；　must　exert　themselves　more；　must　act　with　greater　caution　and　　calculation；　and　must　learn　to　refrain　from　too　wholesale　barbarities；　　only　so　much　wrong　is　permitted　by　public　opinion　as　is　necessary　for　　the　end　in　view；　and　this　the　impartial　bystander　certainly　finds　no　　fault　with。　No　trace　is　here　visible　of　that　half…religious　loyalty　by　　which　the　legitimate　princes　of　the　West　were　supported；　personal　　popularity　is　the　nearest　approach　we　can　find　to　it。　Talent　and　　calculation　are　the　only　means　of　advancement。　A　character　like　that　of　　Charles　the　Bold；　which　wore　itself　out　in　the　passionate　pursuit　of　　impracticable　ends；　was　a　riddle　to　the　Italians。　'The　Swiss　were　only　　peasants；　and　if　they　were　all　killed；　that　would　be　no　satisfaction　　for　the　Burgundian　nobles　who　might　fall　in　the　war。　If　the　Duke　got　　possession　of　all　Switzerland　without　a　struggle；　his　income　would　not　　be　5；000　ducats　the　greater。'　The　mediaeval　features　in　the　character　　of　Charles；　his　chivalrous　aspirations　and　ideals；　had　long　become　　unintelligible　to　the　Italians。　The　diplomatists　of　the　South。　when　　they　saw　him　strike　his　officers　and　yet　keep　them　in　his　service；　when　　he　maltreated　his　troops　to　punish　them　for　a　defeat；　and　then　threw　　the　blame　on　his　counsellors　in　the　presence　of　the　same　troops；　gave　　him　up　for　lost。　Louis　XI；　on　the　other　hand；　whose　policy　surpasses　　that　of　the　Italian　princes　in　their　own　style；　and　who　was　an　avowed　　admirer　of　Francesco　Sforza；　must　be　placed　in　all　that　regards　culture　　and　refinement　far　below　these　rulers。
  Good　and　evil　lie　strangely　mixed　together　in　the　Italian　States　of　the　　fifteenth　century。　The　personality　of　the　ruler　is　so　highly　developed；　　often　of　such　deep　significance；　and　so　characteristic　of　the　　conditions　and　needs　of　the　time；　that　to　form　an　adequate　moral　　judgement　on　it　is　no　easy　task。
  The　foundation　of　the　system　was　and　remained　illegitimate；　and　nothing　　could　remove　the　curse　which　rested　upon　it。　The　imperial　approval　or　　investiture　made　no　change　in　the　matter；　since　the　people　attached　　little　weight　to　the　fact　that　the　despot　had　bought　a　piece　of　　parchment　somewhere　in　foreign　countries；　or　from　some　stranger　passing　　through　his　territory。　If　the　Emperor　had　been　good　for　anything；　so　　ran　the　logic　of　uncritical　common　sense；　he　would　never　have　let　the　　tyrant　rise　at　all。　Since　the　Roman　expedition　of　Charles　IV；　the　　emperors　had　done　nothing　more　in　Italy　than　sanction　a　tyranny　which　　had　arisen　without　their　help；　they　could　give　it　no　other　practical　　authority　than　what　might　flow　from　an　imperial　charter。　The　whole　　conduct　of　Charles　in　Italy　was　a　scandalous　political　comedy。　Matteo　　Villani　relates　how　the　Visconti　escorted　him　round　their　territory；　　and　at　last　out　of　it；　how　he　went　about　like　a　hawker　selling　his　　wares　（privileges；　etc。）　for　money；　what　a　mean　appearance　he　made　in　　Rome；　and　how　at　the　end；　without　even　drawing　the　sword；　he　returned　　with　replenished　coffers　across　the　Alps。　Sigismund　came；　on　the　first　　occasion　at　least　（1414）；　with　the　good　intention　of　persuading　John　　XXIII　to　take　part　in　his　council；　it　was　on　that　journey；　when　Pope　　and　Emperor　were　gazing　from　the　lofty　tower　of　Cremona　on　the　panorama　　of　Lombardy；　that　their　host；　the　tyrant　Gabrino　Fondolo；　was　seized　　with　the　desire　to　throw　them　both　over。　On　his　second　visit　Sigismund　　came　as　a　mere　adventurer；　for　more　than　half　a　year　he　remained　shut　　up　in　Siena；　like　a　debtor　in　gaol；　and　only　with　difficulty；　and　at　a　　later　period；　succeeded　in　being　crowned　in　Rome。　And　what　can　be　　thought　of　Frederick　III？　His　journeys　to　Italy　have　the　air　of　　holiday…trips　or　plea