gotten；　and　his　fall　led　　to　no　return　of　justice　among　the　nations　and　served　as　no　warning　to　　future　transgressors。
  It　was　in　vain　at　such　a　time　that　St。　Thomas　Aquinas；　born　subject　of　　Frederick；　set　up　the　theory　of　a　constitutional　monarchy；　in　which　the　　prince　was　to　be　supported　by　an　upper　house　named　by　himself；　and　a　　representative　body　elected　by　the　people。　Such　theories　found　no　echo　　outside　the　lecture　…　room；　and　Frederick　and　Ezzelino　were　and　remain　　for　Italy　the　great　political　phenomena　of　the　thirteenth　century。　　Their　personality；　already　half　legendary；　forms　the　most　important　　subject　of　'The　Hundred　Old　Tales；'　whose　original　composition　falls　　certainly　within　this　century。　In　them　Ezzelino　is　spoken　of　with　the　　awe　which　all　mighty　impressions　leave　behind　them。　His　person　became　　the　centre　of　a　whole　literature　from　the　chronicle　of　eye…witnesses　to　　the　half…mythical　tragedy　of　later　poets。
  Despots　of　the　Fourteenth　Century
  The　tyrannies；　great　and　small；　of　the　fourteenth　century　afford　　constant　proof　that　examples　such　as　these　were　not　thrown　away。　Their　　misdeeds　cried　forth　loudly　and　have　been　circumstantially　told　by　　historians。　As　States　depending　for　existence　on　themselves　alone；　and　　scientifically　organized　with　a　view　to　this　object；　they　present　to　us　　a　higher　interest　than　that　of　mere　narrative。
  The　deliberate　adaptation　of　means　to　ends；　of　which　no　prince　out　of　　Italy　had　at　that　time　a　conception；　joined　to　almost　absolute　power　　within　the　limits　of　the　State；　produced　among　the　despots　both　men　and　　modes　of　life　of　a　peculiar　character。　The　chief　secret　of　government　　in　the　hands　of　the　prudent　ruler　lay　in　leaving　the　incidence　of　　taxation　as　far　as　possible　where　he　found　it；　or　as　he　had　first　　arranged　it。　The　chief　sources　of　income　were：　a　land　tax；　based　on　a　　valuation；　definite　taxes　on　articles　of　consumption　and　duties　on　　exported　and　imported　goods：　together　with　the　private　fortune　of　the　　ruling　house。　The　only　possible　increase　was　derived　from　the　growth　of　　business　and　of　general　prosperity。　Loans；　such　as　we　find　in　the　free　　cities；　were　here　unknown；　a　well…planned　confiscation　was　held　a　　preferable　means　of　raising　money；　provided　only　that　it　left　public　　credit　unshakenan　end　attained；　for　example；　by　the　truly　Oriental　　practice　of　deposing　and　plundering　the　director　of　the　finances。
  Out　of　this　income　the　expenses　of　the　little　court；　of　the　bodyguard；　　of　the　mercenary　troops；　and　of　the　public　buildings　were　met；　as　well　　as　of　the　buffoons　and　men　of　talent　who　belonged　to　the　personal　　attendants　of　the　prince。　The　illegitimacy　of　his　rule　isolated　the　　tyrant　and　surrounded　him　with　constant　danger；　the　most　honorable　　alliance　which　he　could　form　was　with　intellectual　merit；　without　　regard　to　its　origin。　The　liberality　of　the　northern　princes　of　the　　thirteenth　century　was　confined　to　the　knights；　to　the　nobility　which　　served　and　sang。　It　was　otherwise　with　the　Italian　despot。　With　his　　thirst　for　fame　and　his　passion　for　monumental　works；　it　was　talent；　　not　birth；　which　he　needed。　In　the　company　of　the　poet　and　the　scholar　　he　felt　himself　in　a　new　position；　almost；　indeed；　in　possession　of　a　　new　legitimacy。
  No　prince　was　more　famous　in　this　respect　than　the　ruler　of　Verona；　Can　　Grande　della　Scala；　who　numbered　among　the　illustrious　exiles　whom　he　　entertained　at　his　court　representatives　of　the　whole　of　Italy。　The　men　　of　letters　were　not　ungrateful。　Petrarch；　whose　visits　at　the　courts　of　　such　men　have　been　so　severely　censured；　sketched　an　ideal　picture　of　a　　prince　of　the　fourteenth　century。　He　demands　great　things　from　his　　patron；　the　lord　of　Padua；　but　in　a　manner　which　shows　that　he　holds　　him　capable　of　them。　'Thou　must　not　be　the　master　but　the　father　of　thy　　subjects；　and　must　love　them　as　thy　children；　yea；　as　members　of　thy　　body。　Weapons；　guards；　and　soldiers　thou　mayest　employ　against　the　　enemy…with　thy　subjects　goodwill　is　sufficient。　By　citizens；　of　　course；　I　mean　those　who　love　the　existing　order；　for　those　who　daily　　desire　change　are　rebels　and　traitors；　and　against　such　a　stern　justice　　may　take　its　course。'
  Here　follows；　worked　out　in　detail；　the　purely　modern　fiction　of　the　　omnipotence　of　the　State。　The　prince　is　to　take　everything　into　his　　charge；　to　maintain　and　restore　churches　and　public　buildings；　to　keep　　up　the　municipal　police；　to　drain　the　marshes；　to　look　after　the　supply　　of　wine　and　corn；　so　to　distribute　the　taxes　that　the　people　can　　recognize　their　necessity；　he　is　to　support　the　sick　and　the　helpless；　　and　to　give　his　protection　and　society　to　distinguished　scholars；　on　　whom　his　fame　in　after　ages　will　depend。
  But　whatever　might　be　the　brighter　sides　of　the　system；　and　the　merits　　of　individual　rulers；　yet　the　men　of　the　fourteenth　century　were　not　　without　a　more　or　less　distinct　consciousness　of　the　brief　and　　uncertain　tenure　of　most　of　these　despotisms。　Inasmuch　as　political　　institutions　like　these　are　naturally　secure　in　proportion　to　the　size　　of　the　territory　in　which　they　exist；　the　larger　principalities　were　　constantly　tempted　to　swallow　up　the　smaller。　Whole　hecatombs　of　petty　　rulers　were　sacrificed　at　this　time　to　the　Visconti　alone。　As　a　result　　of　this　outward　danger　an　inward　ferment　was　in　ceaseless　activity；　and　　the　effect　of　the　situation　on　the　character　of　the　ruler　was　generally　　of　the　most　sinister　kind。　Absolute　power；　with　its　temptations　to　　luxury　and　unbridled　selfishness；　and　the　perils　to　which　he　was　　exposed　from　enemies　and　conspirators；　turned　him　almost　inevitably　　into　a　tyrant　in　the　worst　sense　of　the　word。　Well　for　him　if　he　could　　trust　his　nearest　relations！　But　where　all　was　illegitimate；　there　　could　be　no　regular　law　of　inheritance；　either　with　regard　to　the　　succession　or　to　the　division　of　the　ruler's　property；　and　consequently　　the　heir；　if　incompetent　or　a　minor；　was　liable　in　the　interest　of　the　　family　itself　to　be　supplanted　by　an　uncle　or　cousin　of　more　resolute　　character。　The　acknowledgment　or　exclusion　of　the　bastards　was　a　　fruitful　source　of　contest　and　most　of　these　families　in　consequence　　were　plagued　with　a　crowd　of　discontented　and　vindictive　kinsmen。　This　　circumstance　gave　rise　to　continual　outbreaks　of　treason　and　to　　frightful　scenes　of　domestic　bloodshed。　Sometimes　the　pretenders　lived　　abroad　in　exile；　like　the　Visconti；　who　practiced　the　fisherman's　craft　　on　the　Lake　of　Garda；　viewed　the　situation　with　patient　indifference。　　When　asked　by　a　messenger　of　his　rival　when　and　how　he　thought　of　　returning　to　Milan；　he　gave　the　reply；　'By　the　same　means　as　those　by　　which　I　was　expelled；　but　not　till　his　crimes　have　outweighed　my　own。'　　Sometimes；　too；　the　despot　was　sacrificed　by　his　relations；　with　the　　view　of　saving　the　family；　to　the　public　conscience　which　he　had　too　　grossly　outraged。　In　a　few　cases　the　government　was　in　the　hands　of　the　　whole　family；　or　at　least　the　ruler　was　bound　to　take　their　advice；　and　　here；　too；　the　distribution　of　property　and　influence　often　led　to　　bitter　disputes。
  The　whole　of　this　system　excited　the　deep　and　persistent　hatred　of　the　　Florentine　writers　of　that　epoch。　Even　the　pomp　and　display　with　which　　the　despot　was　perhaps　less　anxious　to　gratify　his　own　vanity　than　to　　impress　the　popular　imagination；　awakened　their　keenest　sarcasm。　Woe　to　　an　adventurer　if　he　fell　into　their　hands；　like　the　upstart　Doge　　Agnello　of　Pisa　（1364）；　who　used　to　ride　out　with　a　golden　scepter；　and　　show　himself　at　the　window　of　his　house；　'as　relics　are　shown；'　　reclining　on　embroidered　drapery　and　cushions；　served　like　a　pope　or　　emperor；　by　kneeling　attendants。　More　often；　however；　the　old　　Florentines　speak　on　this　subject　in　a　tone　of　lofty　seriousness。　Dante　　saw　and　characterized　well　the　vulgarity　and　commonplace　which　marked　　the　ambition　of　the　new　princes。　'What　else　mean　their　trumpets　and　　their　bells；　their　horns　and　their　flutes；　but　〃come；　hangmen　come；　　vultures！〃'　The　castle　of　the　tyrant；　as　pictured　by　the　popular　mind；　　is　lofty　and　solitary；　full　of　dungeons　and　listening…tubes；　the　home　　of　cruelty　and　misery。　Misfortune　is　foretold　to　all　who　enter　the　　service　of　the　despot；　who　even　becomes　at　last　himself　an　object　of　　pity：　he　must　needs　be　the　enemy　of　all　good　and　honest　men：　he　can　　trust　no　one　and　can　read　in　the　faces　of　his　subjects　the　expectation　　of　his　fall。　'As　despotisms　rise；　grow；　and　are　consolidated；　so　grows　　in　their　midst　the　hidden　element　which　must　produce　their　dissolution　　and　ruin。'　But　the　deepest　ground　of　dislike　has　not　been　stated；　　Florence　was　then　the　scene　of　the　richest　development　of　human　　individuality；　while　for　the　despots　no　other　individuality　could　be　　suffered　to　live　and　thrive　but　their　own　and　that　of　their　nearest　　dependents。　The　control　of　the　individual　was　rigorously　carried　out；　　even　down　to　the　establishment　of　a　system　of　passports。
  The　astrological　superstitions　and　the　religious　unbelief　of　many　of　　the　tyrants　gave；　in　the　minds　of　their　contemporaries；　a　peculiar　　color　to　this　awful　and　God…forsaken　existence。　When　the　last　Carrara　　could　no　longer　defend　the　walls　and　gates　of　the　plag