The　Civilization　of　the　Renaissance　in　Italy
  by　Jacob　Burckhardt
  Table　of　Contents
  Part　One：　The　State　as　a　Work　of　Art
  1…1　Introduction
  1…2　Despots　of　the　Fourteenth　Century
  1…3　Despots　of　the　Fifteenth　Century
  1…4　The　Smaller　Despotisms
  1…5　The　Greater　Dynasties
  1…6　The　Opponents　of　the　Despots
  1…7　The　Republics：　Venice　and　Florence
  1…8　Foreign　Policy
  1…9　War　as　a　Work　of　Art
  1…10　The　Papacy
  1…11　Patriotism
  Part　Two：　The　Development　of　the　Individual
  2…1　Personality
  2…2　Glory
  2…3　Ridicule　and　Wit
  Part　Three：　The　Revival　of　Antiquity
  3…1　Introductory
  3…2　The　Ruins　of　Rome
  3…3　The　Classics
  3…4　The　Humanists
  3…5　Universities　and　Schools
  3…6　Propagators　of　Antiquity
  3…7　Epistolography：　Latin　Orators
  3…8　The　Treatise；　and　History　in　Latin
  3…9　Antiquity　as　the　Common　Source
  3…10　Neo…Latin　Poetry
  3…11　Fall　of　the　Humanists　in　the　Sixteenth　Century
  Part　Four：　The　Discovery　of　the　World　and　of　Man
  4…1　Journeys　of　the　Italians
  4…2　The　Natural　Sciences　in　Italy
  4…3　Discovery　of　the　Beauty　of　the　Landscape
  4…4　Discovery　of　Man
  4…5　Biography　in　the　Middle　Ages
  4…6　Description　of　the　Outward　Man
  4…7　Description　of　Human　Life
  Part　Five：　Society　and　Festivals
  5…1　Equality　of　Classes
  5…2　Costumes　and　Fashions
  5…3　Language　and　Society
  5…4　Social　Etiquette
  5…5　Education　of　the　'Cortigiano'
  5…6　Music
  5…7　Equality　of　Men　and　Women
  5…8　Domestic　Life
  5…9　Festivals
  Part　Six：　Morality　and　Religion
  6…1　Morality　and　Judgement
  6…2　Morality　and　Immorality
  6…3　Religion　in　Daily　Life
  6…4　Strength　of　the　Old　Faith
  6…5　Religion　and　the　Spirit　of　the　Renaissance
  6…6　Influence　of　Ancient　Superstition
  6…7　General　Spirit　of　Doubt
  THE　CIVILIZATION　OF　THE　RENAISSANCE　IN　ITALY
  By　Jacob　Burckhardt
  Translated　by　S。　G。　C。　Middlemore；　1878
  Part　I
  THE　STATE　AS　A　WORK　OF　ART
  INTRODUCTION
  This　work　bears　the　title　of　an　essay　in　the　strictest　sense　of　the　　word。　No　one　is　more　conscious　than　the　writer　with　what　limited　means　　and　strength　he　has　addressed　himself　to　a　task　so　arduous。　And　even　if　　he　could　look　with　greater　confidence　upon　his　own　researches；　he　would　　hardly　thereby　feel　more　assured　of　the　approval　of　competent　judges。　　To　each　eye；　perhaps；　the　outlines　of　a　given　civilization　present　a　　different　picture；　and　in　treating　of　a　civilization　which　is　the　　mother　of　our　own；　and　whose　influence　is　still　at　work　among　us；　it　is　　unavoidable　that　individual　judgement　and　feeling　should　tell　every　　moment　both　on　the　writer　and　on　the　reader。　In　the　wide　ocean　upon　　which　we　venture；　the　possible　ways　and　directions　are　many；　and　the　　same　studies　which　have　served　for　this　work　might　easily；　in　other　　hands；　not　only　receive　a　wholly　different　treatment　and　application；　　but　lead　also　to　essentially　different　conclusions。　Such　indeed　is　the　　importance　of　the　subject　that　it　still　calls　for　fresh　investigation；　　and　may　be　studied　with　advantage　from　the　most　varied　points　of　view。　　Meanwhile　we　are　content　if　a　patient　hearing　is　granted　us；　and　if　　this　book　be　taken　and　judged　as　a　whole。　It　is　the　most　serious　　difficulty　of　the　history　of　civilization　that　a　great　intellectual　　process　must　be　broken　up　into　single；　and　often　into　what　seem　　arbitrary　categories　in　order　to　be　in　any　way　intelligible。　It　was　　formerly　our　intention　to　fill　up　the　gaps　in　this　book　by　a　special　　work　on　the　'Art　of　the　Renaissance'an　intention；　however；　which　we　　have　been　able　to　fulfill　only　in　part。
  The　struggle　between　the　Popes　and　the　Hohenstaufen　left　Italy　in　a　　political　condition　which　differed　essentially　from　that　of　other　　countries　of　the　West。　While　in　France；　Spain　and　England　the　feudal　　system　was　so　organized　that；　at　the　close　of　its　existence；　it　was　　naturally　transformed　into　a　unified　monarchy；　and　while　in　Germany　it　　helped　to　maintain；　at　least　outwardly；　the　unity　of　the　empire；　Italy　　had　shaken　it　off　almost　entirely。　The　Emperors　of　the　fourteenth　　century；　even　in　the　most　favourable　case；　were　no　longer　received　and　　respected　as　feudal　lords；　but　as　possible　leaders　and　supporters　of　　powers　already　in　existence；　while　the　Papacy；　with　its　creatures　and　　allies；　was　strong　enough　to　hinder　national　unity　in　the　future；　but　　not　strong　enough　itself　to　bring　about　that　unity。　Between　the　two　lay　　a　multitude　of　political　unitsrepublics　and　despotsin　part　of　long　　standing；　in　part　of　recent　origin；　whose　existence　was　founded　simply　　on　their　power　to　maintain　it。　In　them　for　the　first　time　we　detect　the　　modern　political　spirit　of　Europe；　surrendered　freely　to　its　own　　instincts。　Often　displaying　the　worst　features　of　an　unbridled　egotism；　　outraging　every　right；　and　killing　every　germ　of　a　healthier　culture。　　But；　wherever　this　vicious　tendency　is　overcome　or　in　any　way　　compensated；　a　new　fact　appears　in　historythe　State　as　the　outcome　of　　reflection　and　calculation；　the　State　as　a　work　of　art。　This　new　life　　displays　itself　in　a　hundred　forms；　both　in　the　republican　and　in　the　　despotic　States；　and　determines　their　inward　constitution；　no　less　than　　their　foreign　policy。　We　shall　limit　ourselves　to　the　consideration　of　　the　completer　and　more　clearly　defined　type；　which　is　offered　by　the　　despotic　States。
  The　internal　condition　of　the　despotically　governed　States　had　a　　memorable　counterpart　in　the　Norman　Empire　of　Lower　Italy　and　Sicily；　　after　its　transformation　by　the　Emperor　Frederick　Il。　Bred　amid　treason　　and　peril　in　the　neighbourhood　of　the　Saracens；　Frederick；　the　first　　ruler　of　the　modern　type　who　sat　upon　a　throne；　had　early　accustomed　　himself　to　a　thoroughly　objective　treatment　of　affairs。　His　　acquaintance　with　the　internal　condition　and　administration　of　the　　Saracenic　States　was　close　and　intimate；　and　the　mortal　struggle　in　　which　he　was　engaged　with　the　Papacy　compelled　him；　no　less　than　his　　adversaries；　to　bring　into　the　field　all　the　resources　at　his　command。　　Frederick's　measures　（especially　after　the　year　1231）　are　aimed　at　the　　complete　destruction　of　the　feudal　State；　at　the　transformation　of　the　　people　into　a　multitude　destitute　of　will　and　of　the　means　of　　resistance；　but　profitable　in　the　utmost　degree　to　the　exchequer。　He　　centralized；　in　a　manner　hitherto　unknown　in　the　West；　the　whole　　judicial　and　political　administration。　No　office　was　henceforth　to　be　　filled　by　popular　election；　under　penalty　of　the　devastation　of　the　　offending　district　and　of　the　enslavement　of　its　inhabitants。　The　　taxes；　based　on　a　comprehensive　assessment；　and　distributed　in　　accordance　with　Mohammedan　usages；　were　collected　by　those　cruel　and　　vexatious　methods　without　which；　it　is　true；　it　is　impossible　to　obtain　　any　money　from　Orientals。　Here；　in　short；　we　find；　not　a　people；　but　　simply　a　disciplined　multitude　of　subjects；　who　were　forbidden；　for　　example；　to　marry　out　of　the　country　without　special　permission；　and　　under　no　circumstances　were　allowed　to　study　abroad。　The　University　of　　Naples　was　the　first　we　know　of　to　restrict　the　freedom　of　study；　while　　the　East；　in　these　respects　at　all　events；　left　its　youth　unfettered。　　It　was　after　the　examples　of　Mohammedan　rules　that　Frederick　traded　on　　his　own　account　in　all　parts　of　the　Mediterranean；　reserving　to　himself　　the　monopoly　of　many　commodities；　and　restricting　in　various　ways　the　　commerce　of　his　subjects。　The　Fatimite　Caliphs；　with　all　their　esoteric　　unbelief；　were；　at　least　in　their　earlier　history；　tolerant　of　all　the　　differences　in　the　religious　faith　of　their　people；　Frederick；　on　the　　other　hand；　crowned　his　system　of　government　by　a　religious　　inquisition；　which　will　seem　the　more　reprehensible　when　we　remember　　that　in　the　persons　of　the　heretics　he　was　persecuting　the　　representatives　of　a　free　municipal　life。　Lastly；　the　internal　police；　　and　the　kernel　of　the　army　for　foreign　service；　was　composed　of　　Saracens　who　had　been　brought　over　from　Sicily　to　Nocera　and　Lucera　men　who　were　deaf　to　the　cry　of　misery　and　careless　of　the　ban　of　the　　Church。　At　a　later　period　the　subjects；　by　whom　the　use　of　weapons　had　　long　been　forgotten；　were　passive　witnesses　of　the　fall　of　Manfred　and　　of　the　seizure　of　the　government　by　Charles　of　Anjou；　the　latter　　continued　to　use　the　system　which　he　found　already　at　work。
  At　the　side　of　the　centralizing　Emperor　appeared　a　usurper　of　the　most　　peculiar　kind；　his　vicar　and　son…in…law；　Ezzelino　da　Romano。　He　stands　　as　the　representative　of　no　system　of　government　or　administration；　for　　all　his　activity　was　wasted　in　struggles　for　supremacy　in　the　eastern　　part　of　Upper　Italy；　but　as　a　political　type　he　was　a　figure　of　no　less　　importance　for　the　future　than　his　imperial　protector　Frederick。　The　　conquests　and　usurpations　which　had　hitherto　taken　place　in　the　Middle　　Ages　rested　on　real　or　pretended　inheritance　and　other　such　claims；　or　　else　were　effected　against　unbelievers　and　excommunicated　persons。　Here　　for　the　first　time　the　attempt　was　openly　made　to　found　a　throne　by　　wholesale　murder　and　endless　barbarities；　by　the　adoption　in　short；　of　　any　means　with　a　view　to　nothing　but　the　end　pursued。　None　of　his　　successors；　not　even　Cesare　Borgia；　rivalled　the　colossal　guilt　of　　Ezzelino；　but　the　example　once　set　was　not　forgo