and　undivided　sway。　　The　nobles；　the　clergy；　the　commoners；　the　parliaments；　every　thing　in　short　except　a　few　seeming　privileges；　were　controlled　by　the　king；　who；　like　his　early　predecessors；　consumed　regularly；　and　nearly　always　in　advance；　the　revenues　of　his　domain；and　that　domain　was　France。
  Finally；　'89　arrived；　liberty　resumed　its　march；　a　century　and　a　half　had　been　required　to　wear　out　the　last　form　of　feudal　property；monarchy。
  The　French　Revolution　may　be　defined　as　_the　substitution　of　real　right　for　personal　right；_　that　is　to　say；　in　the　days　of　feudalism；　the　value　of　property　depended　upon　the　standing　of　the　proprietor；　while；　after　the　Revolution；　the　regard　for　the　man　was　proportional　to　his　property。　　Now；　we　have　seen　from　what　has　been　said　in　the　preceding　pages；　that　this　recognition　of　the　right　of　laborers　had　been　the　constant　aim　of　the　serfs　and　communes；　the　secret　motive　of　their　efforts。　　The　movement　of　'89　was　only　the　last　stage　of　that　long　insurrection。　　But　it　seems　to　me　that　we　have　not　paid　sufficient　attention　to　the　fact　that　the　Revolution　of　1789；　instigated　by　the　same　causes；　animated　by　the　same　spirit；　triumphing　by　the　same　struggles；　was　consummated　in　Italy　four　centuries　ago。　　Italy　was　the　first　to　sound　the　signal　of　war　against　feudalism；　France　has　followed；　Spain　and　England　are　beginning　to　move；　the　rest　still　sleep。　　If　a　grand　example　should　be　given　to　the　world；　the　day　of　trial　would　be　much　abridged。
  Note　the　following　summary　of　the　revolutions　of　property；　from　the　days　of　the　Roman　Empire　down　to　the　present　time：
  1。　Fifth　century。　Barbarian　invasions；　division　of　the　lands　of　the　empire　into　independent　portions　or　freeholds。
  2。　From　the　fifth　to　the　eighth　century。Gradual　concentration　of　freeholds；　or　transformation　of　the　small　freeholds　into　fiefs；　feuds；　tenures；　&c。　　Large　properties；　small　possessions。　　Charlemagne　（771…814）　decrees　that　all　freeholds　are　dependent　upon　the　king　of　France。
  3。　From　the　eighth　to　the　tenth　century。The　relation　between　the　crown　and　the　superior　dependents　is　broken；　the　latter　becoming　freeholders；　while　the　smaller　dependents　cease　to　recognize　the　king；　and　adhere　to　the　nearest　suzerain。　　Feudal　system。
  4。　Twelfth　century。Movement　of　the　serfs　towards　liberty；　emancipation　of　the　communes。
  5。　Thirteenth　century。Abolition　of　personal　right；　and　of　the　feudal　system　in　Italy。　　Italian　Republics。
  6。　Seventeenth　century。Abolition　of　feudalism　in　France　during　Richelieu's　ministry。　　Despotism。　　　7。　1789。Abolition　of　all　privileges　of　birth；　caste；　provinces；　and　corporations；　equality　of　persons　and　of　rights。　　French　democracy。
  8。　1830。The　principle　of　concentration　inherent　in　individual　property　is　REMARKED。　　Development　of　the　idea　of　association。
  The　more　we　reflect　upon　this　series　of　transformations　and　changes；　the　more　clearly　we　see　that　they　were　necessary　in　their　principle；　in　their　manifestations；　and　in　their　result。
  It　was　necessary　that　inexperienced　conquerors；　eager　for　liberty；　should　divide　the　Roman　Empire　into　a　multitude　of　estates；　as　free　and　independent　as　themselves。
  It　was　necessary　that　these　men；　who　liked　war　even　better　than　liberty；　should　submit　to　their　leaders；　and；　as　the　freehold　represented　the　man；　that　property　should　violate　property。
  It　was　necessary　that；　under　the　rule　of　a　nobility　always　idle　when　not　fighting；　there　should　grow　up　a　body　of　laborers；　who；　by　the　power　of　production；　and　by　the　division　and　circulation　of　wealth；　would　gradually　gain　control　over　commerce；　industry；　and　a　portion　of　the　land；　and　who；　having　become　rich；　would　aspire　to　power　and　authority　also。
  It　was　necessary；　finally；　that　liberty　and　equality　of　rights　having　been　achieved；　and　individual　property　still　existing；　attended　by　robbery；　poverty；　social　inequality；　and　oppression；　there　should　be　an　inquiry　into　the　cause　of　this　evil；　and　an　idea　of　universal　association　formed；　whereby；　on　condition　of　labor；　all　interests　should　be　protected　and　consolidated。
  〃Evil；　when　carried　too　far；〃　says　a　learned　jurist；　〃cures　itself；　and　the　political　innovation　which　aims　to　increase　the　power　of　the　State；　finally　succumbs　to　the　effects　of　its　own　work。　　The　Germans；　to　secure　their　independence；　chose　chiefs；　and　soon　they　were　oppressed　by　their　kings　and　noblemen。　　The　monarchs　surrounded　themselves　with　volunteers；　in　order　to　control　the　freemen；　and　they　found　themselves　dependent　upon　their　proud　vassals。　　The　_missi　dominici_　were　sent　into　the　provinces　to　maintain　the　power　of　the　emperors；　and　to　protect　the　people　from　the　oppressions　of　the　noblemen；　and　not　only　did　they　usurp　the　imperial　power　to　a　great　extent；　but　they　dealt　more　severely　with　the　inhabitants。　　The　freemen　became　vassals；　in　order　to　get　rid　of　military　service　and　court　duty；　and　they　were　immediately　involved　in　all　the　personal　quarrels　of　their　seigniors；　and　compelled　to　do　jury　duty　in　their　courts。　。　。　。　　The　kings　protected　the　cities　and　the　communes；　in　the　hope　of　freeing　them　from　the　yoke　of　the　grand　vassals；　and　of　rendering　their　own　power　more　absolute；　and　those　same　communes　have；　in　several　European　countries；　procured　the　establishment　of　a　constitutional　power；　are　now　holding　royalty　in　check；　and　are　giving　rise　to　a　universal　desire　for　political　reform。〃Meyer：　Judicial　Institutions　of　Europe。
  In　recapitulation。
  What　was　feudalism？　　A　confederation　of　the　grand　seign　iors　against　the　villeins；　and　against　the　king。＇1＇　What　is　constitutional　government？　　A　confederation　of　the　bourgeoisie　against　the　laborers；　and　against　the　king。＇2＇
  ＇1＇　　Feudalism　was；　in　spirit　and　in　its　providential　destiny；　a　long　protest　of　the　human　personality　against　the　monkish　communism　with　which　Europe；　in　the　middle　ages；　was　overrun。　　After　the　orgies　of　Pagan　selfishness；　societycarried　to　the　opposite　extreme　by　the　Christian　religionrisked　its　life　by　unlimited　self…denial　and　absolute　indifference　to　the　pleasures　of　the　world。　　Feudalism　was　the　balance…weight　which　saved　Europe　from　the　combined　influence　of　the　religious　communities　and　the　Manlchean　sects　which　had　sprung　up　since　the　fourth　century　under　different　names　and　in　different　countries。　　Modern　civilization　is　indebted　to　feudalism　for　the　definitive　establishment　of　the　person；　of　marriage；　of　the　family；　and　of　country。　　（See；　on　this　subject；　Guizot；　〃History　of　Civilization　in　Europe。〃）
  ＇2＇　　This　was　made　evident　in　July；　1830；　and　the　years　which　followed　it；　when　the　electoral　bourgeoisie　effected　a　revolution　in　order　to　get　control　over　the　king；　and　suppressed　the　emeutes　in　order　to　restrain　the　people。　　The　bourgeoisie；　through　the　jury；　the　magistracy；　its　position　in　the　army；　and　its　municipal　despotism；　governs　both　royalty　and　the　people。　　It　is　the　bourgeoisie　which；　more　than　any　other　class；　is　conservative　and　retrogressive。　　It　is　the　bourgeoisie　which　makes　and　unmakes　ministries。　　It　is　the　bourgeoisie　which　has　destroyed　the　influence　of　the　Upper　Chamber；　and　which　will　dethrone　the　King　whenever　he　shall　become　unsatisfactory　to　it。　　It　is　to　please　the　　bourgeoisie　　that　royalty　makes　itself　unpopular。　　It　is　the　　bourgeoisie　which　is　troubled　at　the　hopes　of　the　people；　and　which　hinders　reform。　　The　journals　of　the　bourgeoisie　are　the　ones　which　preach　morality　and　religion　to　us；　while　reserving　scepticism　and　indifference　for　themselves；　which　attack　personal　government；　and　favor　the　denial　of　the　electoral　privilege　to　those　who　have　no　property。　　The　bourgeoisie　will　accept　any　thing　rather　than　the　emancipation　of　the　proletariat。　　As　soon　as　it　thinks　its　privileges　threatened；　it　will　unite　with　royalty；　and　who　does　not　know　that　at　this　very　moment　these　two　antagonists　have　suspended　their　quarrels？　。　。　。　　It　has　been　a　question　of　property。
  How　did　feudalism　end？　　In　the　union　of　the　communes　and　the　royal　authority。　　How　will　the　bourgeoisie　aristocracy　end？　　In　the　union　of　the　proletariat　and　the　sovereign　power。
  What　was　the　immediate　result　of　the　struggle　of　the　communes　and　the　king　against　the　seigniors？　　The　monarchical　unity　of　Louis　XIV。　　What　will　be　the　result　of　the　struggle　of　the　proletariat　and　the　sovereign　power　combined　against　the　bourgeoisie？　　The　absolute　unity　of　the　nation　and　the　government。
  It　remains　to　be　seen　whether　the　nation；　one　and　supreme；　will　be　represented　in　its　executive　and　central　power　by　ONE；　by　FIVE；　by　ONE　HUNDRED；　or　ONE　THOUSAND；　that　is；　it　remains　to　be　seen；　whether　the　royalty　of　the　barricades　intends　to　maintain　itself　by　the　people；　or　without　the　people；　and　whether　Louis　Philippe　wishes　his　reign　to　be　the　most　famous　in　all　history。
  I　have　made　this　statement　as　brief；　but　at　the　same　time　as　accurate　as　I　could；　neglecting　facts　and　details；　that　I　might　give　the　more　attention　to　the　economical　relations　of　society。　　For　the　study　of　history　is　like　the　study　of　the　human　organism；　just　as　the　latter　has　its　system；　its　organs；　and　its　functions；　which　can　be　treated　separately；　so　the　former　has　its　ensemble；　its　instruments；　and　its　causes。　　Of　course　I　do　n