he　social　condition　is　such　that　the　proprietor；　ruined　by　usury；　may　be　compelled　to　sell　his　possession；　the　means　of　his　subsistence；　he　will　sell　it；　and；　thanks　to　the　law；　accumulated　property　devouring　and　anthropophagous　propertywill　be　established。＇1＇
  ＇1＇　　〃Its　acquisitive　nature　works　rapidly　in　the　sleep　of　the　law。　　It　is　ready；　at　the　word；　to　absorb　every　thing。　　Witness　the　famous　equivocation　about　the　ox…hide　which；　when　cut　up　into　thongs；　was　large　enough　to　enclose　the　site　of　Carthage。　。　。　。　　The　legend　has　reappeared　several　times　since　Dido。　。　。　。　　Such　is　the　love　of　man　for　the　land。　　Limited　by　tombs；　measured　by　the　members　of　the　human　body；　by　the　thumb；　the　foot；　and　the　arm；　it　harmonizes；　as　far　as　possible；　with　the　very　proportions　of　man。　　Nor　is　be　satisfied　yet：　he　calls　Heaven　to　witness　that　it　is　his；　he　tries　to　or　his　land；　to　give　it　the　form　of　heaven。　。　。　。　　In　his　titanic　intoxication；　he　describes　property　in　the　very　terms　which　he　employs　in　describing　the　Almighty_fundus_　_optimus　maximus_。　。　。　。　　He　shall　make　it　his　couch；　and　they　shall　be　separated　no　more；｛GREEK；　　‘　　nf　　　　　g
  h　　　g　g　。〃｝Michelet：Origin　of　French　Law。
  The　immediate　and　secondary　cause　of　the　decline　of　the　Romans　was；　then；　the　internal　dissensions　between　the　two　orders　of　the　republic；the　patricians　and　the　plebeians；dissensions　which　gave　rise　to　civil　wars；　proscriptions；　and　loss　of　liberty；　and　finally　led　to　the　empire；　but　the　primary　and　mediate　cause　of　their　decline　was　the　establishment　by　Numa　of　the　institution　of　property。
  I　end　with　an　extract　from　a　work　which　I　have　quoted　several　times　already；　and　which　has　recently　received　a　prize　from　the　Academy　of　Moral　and　Political　Sciences：
  〃The　concentration　of　property；〃　says　M。　Laboulaye；　〃while　causing　extreme　poverty；　forced　the　emperors　to　feed　and　amuse　the　people；　that　they　might　forget　their　misery。　　_Panem　et　circenses：_　that　was　the　Roman　law　in　regard　to　the　poor；　a　dire　and　perhaps　a　necessary　evil　wherever　a　landed　aristocracy　exists。
  〃To　feed　these　hungry　mouths；　grain　was　brought　from　Africa　and　the　provinces；　and　distributed　gratuitously　among　the　needy。　　In　the　time　of　Caesar；　three　hundred　and　twenty　thousand　people　were　thus　fed。　　Augustus　saw　that　such　a　measure　led　directly　to　the　destruction　of　husbandry；　but　to　abolish　these　distributions　was　to　put　a　weapon　within　the　reach　of　the　first　aspirant　for　power。
  The　emperor　shrank　at　the　thought。
  〃While　grain　was　gratuitous；　agriculture　was　impossible。　　Tillage　gave　way　to　pasturage；　another　cause　of　depopulation；　even　among　slaves。
  〃Finally；　luxury；　carried　further　and　further　every　day；　covered　the　soil　of　Italy　with　elegant　villas；　which　occupied　whole　cantons。　　Gardens　and　groves　replaced　the　fields；　and　the　free　population　fled　to　the　towns。　　Husbandry　disappeared　almost　entirely；　and　with　husbandry　the　husbandman。　　Africa　furnished　the　wheat；　and　Greece　the　wine。　　Tiberius　complained　bitterly　of　this　evil；　which　placed　the　lives　of　the　Roman　people　at　the　mercy　of　the　winds　and　waves：　that　was　his　anxiety。　　One　day　later；　and　three　hundred　thousand　starving　men　walked　the　streets　of　Rome：　that　was　a　revolution。
  〃This　decline　of　Italy　and　the　provinces　did　not　stop。　　After　the　reign　of　Nero；　depopulation　commenced　in　towns　as　noted　as　Antium　and　Tarentum。　　Under　the　reign　of　Pertinax；　there　was　so　much　desert　land　that　the　emperor　abandoned　it；　even　that　which　belonged　to　the　treasury；　to　whoever　would　cultivate　it；　besides　exempting　the　farmers　from　taxation　for　a　period　of　ten　years。　　Senators　were　compelled　to　invest　one…third　of　their　fortunes　in　real　estate　in　Italy；　but　this　measure　served　only　to　increase　the　evil　which　they　wished　to　cure。　　To　force　the　rich　to　possess　in　Italy　was　to　increase　the　large　estates　which　had　ruined　the　country。　　And　must　I　say；　finally；　that　Aurelian　wished　to　send　the　captives　into　the　desert　lands　of　Etruria；　and　that　Valentinian　was　forced　to　settle　the　Alamanni　on　the　fertile　banks　of　the　Po？〃
  If　the　reader；　in　running　through　this　book；　should　complain　of　meeting　with　nothing　but　quotations　from　other　works；　extracts　from　journals　and　public　lectures；　comments　upon　laws；　and　interpretations　of　them；　I　would　remind　him　that　the　very　object　of　this　memoir　is　to　establish　the　conformity　of　my　opinion　concerning　property　with　that　universally　held；　that；　far　from　aiming　at　a　paradox；　it　has　been　my　main　study　to　follow　the　advice　of　the　world；　and；　finally；　that　my　sole　pretension　is　to　clearly　formulate　the　general　belief。　　I　cannot　repeat　it　too　often；and　I　confess　it　with　pride；I　teach　absolutely　nothing　that　is　new；　and　I　should　regard　the　doctrine　which　I　advocate　as　radically　erroneous；　if　a　single　witness　should　testify　against　it。
  Let　us　now　trace　the　revolutions　in　property　among　the　Barbarians。
  As　long　as　the　German　tribes　dwelt　in　their　forests；　it　did　not　occur　to　them　to　divide　and　appropriate　the　soil。　　The　land　was　held　in　common：　each　individual　could　plow；　sow；　and　reap。　　But；　when　the　empire　was　once　invaded；　they　bethought　themselves　of　sharing　the　land；　just　as　they　shared　spoils　after　a　victory。　　〃Hence；〃　says　M。　Laboulaye；　〃the　expressions　_sortes　Burgundiorum　Gothorum_　and　｛GREEK；　　　　　　　　　　‘　k　　　　｝；　hence　the　German　words　_allod_；　allodium；　and　_loos_；　lot；　which　are　used　in　all　modern　languages　to　designate　the　gifts　of　chance。〃
  Allodial　property；　at　least　with　the　mass　of　coparceners；　was　originally　held；　then；　in　equal　shares；　for　all　of　the　prizes　were　equal；　or；　at　least；　equivalent。　　This　property；　like　that　of　the　Romans；　was　wholly　individual；　independent；　exclusive；　transferable；　and　consequently　susceptible　of　accumulation　and　invasion。　　But；　instead　of　its　being；　as　was　the　case　among　the　Romans；　the　large　estate　which；　through　increase　and　usury；　subordinated　and　absorbed　the　small　one；　among　the　Barbarians　fonder　of　war　than　of　wealth；　more　eager　to　dispose　of　persons　than　to　appropriate　thingsit　was　the　warrior　who；　through　superiority　of　arms；　enslaved　his　adversary。　　The　Roman　wanted　matter；　the　Barbarian　wanted　man。　　Consequently；　in　the　feudal　ages；　rents　were　almost　nothing；simply　a　hare；　a　partridge；　a　pie；　a　few　pints　of　wine　brought　by　a　little　girl；　or　a　Maypole　set　up　within　the　suzerain's　reach。　　In　return；　the　vassal　or　incumbent　had　to　follow　the　seignior　to　battle　（a　thing　which　happened　almost　every　day）；　and　equip　and　feed　himself　at　his　own　expense。　　〃This　spirit　of　the　German　tribesthis　spirit　of　companionship　and　associationgoverned　the　territory　as　it　governed　individuals。　　The　lands；　like　the　men；　were　secured　to　a　chief　or　seignior　by　a　bond　of　mutual　protection　and　fidelity。　　This　subjection　was　the　labor　of　the　German　epoch　which　gave　birth　to　feudalism。　　By　fair　means　or　foul；　every　proprietor　who　could　not　be　a　chief　was　forced　to　be　a　vassal。〃　　（Laboulaye：　History　of　Property。）
  By　fair　means　or　foul；　every　mechanic　who　cannot　be　a　master　has　to　be　a　journeyman；　every　proprietor　who　is　not　an　invader　will　be　invaded；　every　producer　who　cannot；　by　the　exploitation　of　other　men；　furnish　products　at　less　than　their　proper　value；　will　lose　his　labor。　　Corporations　and　masterships；　which　are　hated　so　bitterly；　but　which　will　reappear　if　we　are　not　careful；　are　the　necessary　results　of　the　principle　of　competition　which　is　inherent　in　property；　their　organization　was　patterned　formerly　after　that　of　the　feudal　hierarchy；　which　was　the　result　of　the　subordination　of　men　and　possessions。
  The　times　which　paved　the　way　for　the　advent　of　feudalism　and　the　reappearance　of　large　proprietors　were　times　of　carnage　and　the　most　frightful　anarchy。　　Never　before　had　murder　and　violence　made　such　havoc　with　the　human　race。　　The　tenth　century；　among　others；　if　my　memory　serves　me　rightly；　was　called　the　CENTURY　OF　IRON。　　His　property；　his　life；　and　the　honor　of　his　wife　and　children　always　in　danger　the　small　proprietor　made　haste　to　do　homage　to　his　seignior；　and　to　bestow　something　on　the　church　of　his　freehold；　that　he　might　receive　protection　and　security。
  〃Both　facts　and　laws　bear　witness　that　from　the　sixth　to　the　tenth　century　the　proprietors　of　small　freeholds　were　gradually　plundered；　or　reduced　by　the　encroachments　of　large　proprietors　and　counts　to　the　condition　of　either　vassals　or　tributaries。　　The　Capitularies　are　full　of　repressive　provisions；　but　the　incessant　reiteration　of　these　threats　only　shows　the　perseverance　of　the　evil　and　the　impotency　of　the　government。　　Oppression；　moreover；　varies　but　little　in　its　methods。　　The　complaints　of　the　free　proprietors；　and　the　groans　of　the　plebeians　at　the　time　of　the　Gracchi；　were　one　and　the　same。　　It　is　said　that；　whenever　a　poor　man　refused　to　give　his　estate　to　the　bishop；　the　curate；　the　count；　the　judge；　or　the　centurion；　these　immediately　sought　an　opportunity　to　ruin　him。　　They　made　him　serve　in　the　army　until；　completely　ruined；　he　was　induced；　by　fair　means　or　foul；　to　give　up　his　freehold。〃Laboulaye：　History　of　Property。
  How　many　small　proprietors　and　manufacturers　have　not　been　ruined　by　large　ones　through　chicanery；　law…suits；　and　competition？　　Strategy；　violence；　and