Solon　decreed　that　a　census　should　be　taken　of　all　fortunes；　regulated　political　rights　by　the　result；　granted　to　the　larger　proprietors　more　influence；　established　the　balance　of　powers；　in　a　word；　inserted　in　the　constitution　the　most　active　leaven　of　discord；　as　if；　instead　of　a　legislator　chosen　by　the　people；　he　had　been　their　greatest　enemy。　　Is　it　not；　indeed；　the　height　of　imprudence　to　grant　equality　of　political　rights　to　men　of　unequal　conditions？　　If　a　manufacturer；　uniting　all　his　workmen　in　a　joint…stock　company；　should　give　to　each　of　them　a　consultative　and　deliberative　voice；that　is；　should　make　all　of　them　masters；would　this　equality　of　mastership　secure　continued　inequality　of　wages？　　That　is　the　whole　political　system　of　Solon；　reduced　to　its　simplest　expression。
  〃In　giving　property　a　just　preponderance；〃　says　M。　Pastoret；　〃Solon　repaired；　as　far　as　he　was　able；　his　first　official　act；　the　abolition　of　debts。　。　。　。　　He　thought　he　owed　it　to　public　peace　to　make　this　great　sacrifice　of　acquired　rights　and　natural　equity。　　But　the　violation　of　individual　property　and　written　contracts　is　a　bad　preface　to　a　public　code。〃
  In　fact；　such　violations　are　always　cruelly　punished。　　In　'89　and　'93；　the　possessions　of　the　nobility　and　the　clergy　were　confiscated；　the　clever　proletaires　were　enriched；　and　to…day　the　latter；　having　become　aristocrats；　are　making　us　pay　dearly　for　our　fathers'　robbery。　　What；　therefore；　is　to　be　done　now？　　It　is　not　for　us　to　violate　right；　but　to　restore　it。　　Now；　it　would　be　a　violation　of　justice　to　dispossess　some　and　endow　others；　and　then　stop　there。　　We　must　gradually　lower　the　rate　of　interest；　organize　industry；　associate　laborers　and　their　functions；　and　take　a　census　of　the　large　fortunes；　not　for　the　purpose　of　granting　privileges；　but　that　we　may　effect　their　redemption　by　settling　a　life…annuity　upon　their　proprietors。　　We　must　apply　on　a　large　scale　the　principle　of　collective　production；　give　the　State　eminent　domain　over　all　capital！　make　each　producer　responsible；　abolish　the　custom…house；　and　transform　every　profession　and　trade　into　a　public　function。　　Thereby　large　fortunes　will　vanish　without　confiscation　or　violence；　individual　possession　will　establish　itself；　without　communism；　under　the　inspection　of　the　republic；　and　equality　of　conditions　will　no　longer　depend　simply　on　the　will　of　citizens。
  Of　the　authors　who　have　written　upon　the　Romans；　Bossuet　and　Montesquieu　occupy　prominent　positions　in　the　first　rank；　the　first　being　generally　regarded　as　the　father　of　the　philosophy　of　history；　and　the　second　as　the　most　profound　writer　upon　law　and　politics。　　Nevertheless；　it　could　be　shown　that　these　two　great　writers；　each　of　them　imbued　with　the　prejudices　of　their　century　and　their　cloth；　have　left　the　question　of　the　causes　of　the　rise　and　fall　of　the　Romans　precisely　where　they　found　it。
  Bossuet　is　admirable　as　long　as　he　confines　himself　to　description：　witness；　among　other　passages；　the　picture　which　he　has　given　us　of　Greece　before　the　Persian　War；　and　which　seems　to　have　inspired　〃Telemachus；〃　the　parallel　between　Athens　and　Sparta；　drawn　twenty　times　since　Bossuet；　the　description　of　the　character　and　morals　of　the　ancient　Romans；　and；　finally；　the　sublime　peroration　which　ends　the　〃Discourse　on　Universal　History。〃　　But　when　the　famous　historian　deals　with　causes；　his　philosophy　is　at　fault。
  〃The　tribunes　always　favored　the　division　of　captured　lands；　or　the　proceeds　of　their　sale；　among　the　citizens。　　The　Senate　steadfastly　opposed　those　laws　which　were　damaging　to　the　State；　and　wanted　the　price　of　lands　to　be　awarded　to　the　public　treasury。〃
  Thus；　according　to　Bossuet；　the　first　and　greatest　wrong　of　civil　wars　was　inflicted　upon　the　people；　who；　dying　of　hunger；　demanded　that　the　lands；　which　they　had　shed　their　blood　to　conquer；　should　be　given　to　them　for　cultivation。　　The　patricians；　who　bought　them　to　deliver　to　their　slaves；　had　more　regard　for　justice　and　the　public　interests。　　How　little　affects　the　opinions　of　men！　　If　the　roles　of　Cicero　and　the　Gracchi　had　been　inverted；　Bossuet；　whose　sympathies　were　aroused　by　the　eloquence　of　the　great　orator　more　than　by　the　clamors　of　the　tribunes；　would　have　viewed　the　agrarian　laws　in　quite　a　different　light。　　He　then　would　have　understood　that　the　interest　of　the　treasury　was　only　a　pretext；　that；　when　the　captured　lands　were　put　up　at　auction；　the　patricians　hastened　to　buy　them；　in　order　to　profit　by　the　revenues　from　them；certain；　moreover；　that　the　price　paid　would　come　back　to　them　sooner　or　later；　in　exchange　either　for　supplies　furnished　by　them　to　the　republic；　or　for　the　subsistence　of　the　multitude；　who　could　buy　only　of　them；　and　whose　services　at　one　time；　and　poverty　at　another；　were　rewarded　by　the　State。　　For　a　State　does　not　hoard；　on　the　contrary；　the　public　funds　always　return　to　the　people。　　If；　then；　a　certain　number　of　men　are　the　sole　dealers　in　articles　of　primary　necessity；　it　follows　that　the　public　treasury；　in　passing　and　repassing　through　their　hands；　deposits　and　accumulates　real　property　there。
  When　Menenius　related　to　the　people　his　fable　of　the　limbs　and　the　stomach；　if　any　one　had　remarked　to　this　story…teller　that　the　stomach　freely　gives　to　the　limbs　the　nourishment　which　it　freely　receives；　but　that　the　patricians　gave　to　the　plebeians　only　for　cash；　and　lent　to　them　only　at　usury；　he　undoubtedly　would　have　silenced　the　wily　senator；　and　saved　the　people　from　a　great　imposition。　　The　Conscript　Fathers　were　fathers　only　of　their　own　line。　　As　for　the　common　people；　they　were　regarded　as　an　impure　race；　exploitable；　taxable；　and　workable　at　the　discretion　and　mercy　of　their　masters。
  As　a　general　thing；　Bossuet　shows　little　regard　for　the　people。　　His　monarchical　and　theological　instincts　know　nothing　but　authority；　obedience；　and　alms…giving；　under　the　name　of　charity。
  This　unfortunate　disposition　constantly　leads　him　to　mistake　symptoms　for　causes；　and　his　depth；　which　is　so　much　admired；　is　borrowed　from　his　authors；　and　amounts　to　very　little；　after　all。
  When　he　says；　for　instance；　that　〃the　dissensions　in　the　republic；　and　finally　its　fall；　were　caused　by　the　jealousies　of　its　citizens；　and　their　love　of　liberty　carried　to　an　extreme　and　intolerable　extent；〃　are　we　not　tempted　to　ask　him　what　caused　those　JEALOUSIES？what　inspired　the　people　with　that　lOVE　OF　LIBERTY；　EXTREME　AND　INTOLERABLE？　　It　would　be　useless　to　reply；　The　corruption　of　morals；　the　disregard　for　the　ancient　poverty；　the　debaucheries；　luxury；　and　class　jealousies；　the　seditious　character　of　the　Gracchi；　&c。　　Why　did　the　morals　become　corrupt；　and　whence　arose　those　eternal　dissensions　between　the　patricians　and　the　plebeians？
  In　Rome；　as　in　all　other　places；　the　dissension　between　the　rich　and　the　poor　was　not　caused　directly　by　the　desire　for　wealth　（people；　as　a　general　thing；　do　not　covet　that　which　they　deem　it　illegitimate　to　acquire）；　but　by　a　natural　instinct　of　the　plebeians；　which　led　them　to　seek　the　cause　of　their　adversity　in　the　constitution　of　the　republic。　　So　we　are　doing　to…day；　instead　of　altering　our　public　economy；　we　demand　an　electoral　reform。　　The　Roman　people　wished　to　return　to　the　social　compact；　they　asked　for　reforms；　and　demanded　a　revision　of　the　laws；　and　a　creation　of　new　magistracies。　　The　patricians；　who　had　nothing　to　complain　of；　opposed　every　innovation。　　Wealth　always　has　been　conservative。　　Nevertheless；　the　people　overcame　the　resistance　of　the　Senate；　the　electoral　right　was　greatly　extended；　the　privileges　of　the　plebeians　were　increased；they　had　their　representatives；　their　tribunes；　and　their　consuls；　but；　notwithstanding　these　reforms；　the　republic　could　not　be　saved。　　When　all　political　expedients　had　been　exhausted；　when　civil　war　had　depleted　the　population；　when　the　Caesars　had　thrown　their　bloody　mantle　over　the　cancer　which　was　consuming　the　empire；　inasmuch　as　accumulated　property　always　was　respected；　and　since　the　fire　never　stopped；　the　nation　had　to　perish　in　the　flames。　　The　imperial　power　was　a　compromise　which　protected　the　property　of　the　rich；　and　nourished　the　proletaires　with　wheat　from　Africa　and　Sicily：　a　double　error；　which　destroyed　the　aristocrats　by　plethora　and　the　commoners　by　famine。　　At　last　there　was　but　one　real　proprietor　left；the　emperor；whose　dependent；　flatterer；　parasite；　or　slave；　each　citizen　became；　and　when　this　proprietor　was　ruined；　those　who　gathered　the　crumbs　from　under　his　table；　and　laughed　when　he　cracked　his　jokes；　perished　also。
  Montesquieu　succeeded　no　better　than　Bossuet　in　fathoming　the　causes　of　the　Roman　decline；　indeed；　it　may　be　said　that　the　president　has　only　developed　the　ideas　of　the　bishop。　　If　the　Romans　had　been　more　moderate　in　their　conquests；　more　just　to　their　allies；　more　humane　to　the　vanquished；　if　the　nobles　had　been　less　covetous；　the　emperors　less　lawless；　the　people　less　violent；　and　all　classes　less　corrupt；　if　。　。　。　&c。；　perhaps　the　dignity　of　the　empire　might　have　been　preserved；　and　Rome　might　have　retained　the　sceptre　of　the　world！　　That　is　all　that　can　be　gathered　from　the　teachings　of　Montesquieu。　　But　the　truth　of　history　does　not　lie　ther