ial　comforts；　to　personal　merit；　and　since　the　highest　and　almost　the　only　merit　then　recognized　is　physical　strength；　the　strongest；　｛GREEK　‘　　eg　　｝；　and　consequently　the　best；　｛GREEK　‘　　eg　　｝；　is　entitled　to　the　largest　share；　and　if　it　is　refused　him；　he　very　naturally　takes　it　by　force。　　From　this　to　the　assumption　of　the　right　of　property　in　all　things；　it　is　but　one　step。
  Such　was　justice　in　the　heroic　age；　preserved；　at　least　by　tradition；　among　the　Greeks　and　Romans　down　to　the　last　days　of　their　republics。　　Plato；　in　the　〃Gorgias；〃　introduces　a　character　named　Callicles；　who　spiritedly　defends　the　right　of　the　strongest；　which　Socrates；　the　advocate　of　equality；　｛GREEK　g　　　　e　　｝；　seriously　refutes。　　It　is　related　of　the　great　Pompey；　that　he　blushed　easily；　and；　nevertheless；　these　words　once　escaped　his　lips：　　〃Why　should　I　respect　the　laws；　when　I　have　arms　in　my　hand？〃　　This　shows　him　to　have　been　a　man　in　whom　the　moral　sense　and　ambition　were　struggling　for　the　mastery；　and　who　sought　to　justify　his　violence　by　the　motto　of　the　hero　and　the　brigand。
  From　the　right　of　the　strongest　springs　the　exploitation　of　man　by　man；　or　bondage；　usury；　or　the　tribute　levied　upon　the　conquered　by　the　conqueror；　and　the　whole　numerous　family　of　taxes；　duties；　monarchical　prerogatives；　house…rents；　farm…rents；　&c。；　in　one　word；property。
  Force　was　followed　by　artifice；　the　second　manifestation　of　justice；　which　was　detested　by　the　ancient　heroes；　who；　not　excelling　in　that　direction；　were　heavy　losers　by　it。　　Force　was　still　employed；　but　mental　force　instead　of　physical。　　Skill　in　deceiving　an　enemy　by　treacherous　propositions　seemed　deserving　of　reward；　nevertheless；　the　strong　always　prided　themselves　upon　their　honesty。　　In　those　days；　oaths　were　observed　and　promises　kept　according　to　the　letter　rather　than　the　spirit：　　_Uti　lingua　nuncupassit；　ita　jus　esto_；〃As　the　tongue　has　spoken；　so　must　the　right　be；〃　says　the　law　of　the　Twelve　Tables。　　Artifice；　or　rather　perfidy；　was　the　main　element　in　the　politics　of　ancient　Rome。　　Among　other　examples；　Vico　cites　the　following；　also　quoted　by　Montesquieu：　　The　Romans　had　guaranteed　to　the　Carthaginians　the　preservation　of　their　goods　and　their　CITY；　intentionally　using　the　word　civitas；　that　is；　the　society；　the　State；　the　Carthaginians；　on　the　contrary；　understood　them　to　mean　the　material　city；　urbs；　and　accordingly　began　to　rebuild　their　walls。　　They　were　immediately　attacked　on　account　of　their　violation　of　the　treaty；　by　the　Romans；　who；　acting　upon　the　old　heroic　idea　of　right；　did　not　imagine　that；　in　taking　advantage　of　an　equivocation　to　surprise　their　enemies；　they　were　waging　unjust　war。
  From　artifice　sprang　the　profits　of　manufactures；　commerce；　and　banking；　mercantile　frauds；　and　pretensions　which　are　honored　with　the　beautiful　names　of　TALENT　and　GENIUS；　but　which　ought　to　be　regarded　as　the　last　degree　of　knavery　and　deception；　and；　finally；　all　sorts　of　social　inequalities。
  In　those　forms　of　robbery　which　are　prohibited　by　law；　force　and　artifice　are　employed　alone　and　undisguised；　in　the　authorized　forms；　they　conceal　themselves　within　a　useful　product；　which　they　use　as　a　tool　to　plunder　their　victim。
  The　direct　use　of　violence　and　stratagem　was　early　and　universally　condemned；　but　no　nation　has　yet　got　rid　of　that　kind　of　robbery　which　acts　through　talent；　labor；　and　possession；　and　which　is　the　source　of　all　the　dilemmas　of　casuistry　and　the　innumerable　contradictions　of　jurisprudence。
  The　right　of　force　and　the　right　of　artificeglorified　by　the　rhapsodists　in　the　poems　of　the　〃Iliad〃　and　the　〃Odyssey〃　inspired　the　legislation　of　the　Greeks　and　Romans；　from　which　they　passed　into　our　morals　and　codes。　　Christianity　has　not　changed　at　all。　　The　Gospel　should　not　be　blamed；　because　the　priests；　as　stupid　as　the　legists；　have　been　unable　either　to　expound　or　to　understand　it。　　The　ignorance　of　councils　and　popes　upon　all　questions　of　morality　is　equal　to　that　of　the　market…　place　and　the　money…changers；　and　it　is　this　utter　ignorance　of　right；　justice；　and　society；　which　is　killing　the　Church；　and　discrediting　its　teachings　for　ever。　　The　infidelity　of　the　Roman　church　and　other　Christian　churches　is　flagrant；　all　have　disregarded　the　precept　of　Jesus；　all　have　erred　in　moral　and　doctrinal　points；　all　are　guilty　of　teaching　false　and　absurd　dogmas；　which　lead　straight　to　wickedness　and　murder。　　Let　it　ask　pardon　of　God　and　men；this　church　which　called　itself　infallible；　and　which　has　grown　so　corrupt　in　morals；　let　its　reformed　sisters　humble　themselves；　。　。　。　　and　the　people；　undeceived；　but　still　religious　and　merciful；　will　begin　to　think。＇1＇
  ＇1＇　　〃I　preach　the　Gospel；　I　live　by　the　Gospel；〃　said　the　Apostle；　meaning　thereby　that　he　lived　by　his　labor。　　The　Catholic　clergy　prefer　to　live　by　property。　　The　struggles　in　the　communes　of　the　middle　ages　between　the　priests　and　bishops　and　the　large　proprietors　and　seigneurs　are　famous。　　The　papal　excommunications　fulminated　in　defence　of　ecclesiastical　revenues　are　no　less　so。　　Even　to…day；　the　official　organs　of　the　Gallican　clergy　still　maintain　that　the　pay　received　by　the　clergy　is　not　a　salary；　but　an　indemnity　for　goods　of　which　they　were　once　proprietors；　and　which　were　taken　from　them　in　'89　by　the　Third　Estate。　　The　clergy　prefer　to　live　by　the　right　of　increase　rather　than　by　labor。
  One　of　the　main　causes　of　Ireland's　poverty　to…day　is　the　immense　revenues　of　the　English　clergy。　　So　heretics　and　orthodox　Protestants　and　Papistscannot　reproach　each　other。　　All　have　strayed　from　the　path　of　justice；　all　have　disobeyed　the　eighth　commandment　of　the　Decalogue：　　〃Thou　shalt　not　steal。〃
  The　development　of　right　has　followed　the　same　order；　in　its　various　expressions；　that　property　has　in　its　forms。　　Every　where　we　see　justice　driving　robbery　before　it　and　confining　it　within　narrower　and　narrower　limits。　　Hitherto　the　victories　of　justice　over　injustice；　and　of　equality　over　inequality；　have　been　won　by　instinct　and　the　simple　force　of　things；　but　the　final　triumph　of　our　social　nature　will　be　due　to　our　reason；　or　else　we　shall　fall　back　into　feudal　chaos。　　Either　this　glorious　height　is　reserved　for　our　intelligence；　or　this　miserable　depth　for　our　baseness。
  The　second　effect　of　property　is　despotism。　　Now；　since　despotism　is　inseparably　connected　with　the　idea　of　legitimate　authority；　in　explaining　the　natural　causes　of　the　first；　the　principle　of　the　second　will　appear。
  What　is　to　be　the　form　of　government　in　the　future？　hear　some　of　my　younger　readers　reply：　　〃Why；　how　can　you　ask　such　a　question？
  You　are　a　republican。〃　　〃A　republican！　　Yes；　but　that　word　specifies　nothing。　　_Res　publica；_　that　is；　the　public　thing。　　Now；　whoever　is　interested　in　public　affairsno　matter　under　what　form　of　governmentmay　call　himself　a　republican。　　Even　kings　are　republicans。〃
  〃Well！　you　are　a　democrat？〃〃No。〃〃What！　you　would　have　a　monarchy。〃〃No。〃〃A　constitutionalist？〃〃God　forbid！〃〃You　are　then　an　aristocrat？〃〃Not　at　all。〃〃You　want　a　mixed　government？〃〃Still　less。〃〃What　are　you；　then？〃〃I　am　an　anarchist。〃
  〃Oh！　　I　understand　you；　you　speak　satirically。　　This　is　a　hit　at　the　government。〃〃By　no　means。　　I　have　just　given　you　my　serious　and　well…considered　profession　of　faith。　　Although　a　firm　friend　of　order；　I　am　（in　the　full　force　of　the　term）　an　anarchist。　　Listen　to　me。〃
  In　all　species　of　sociable　animals；　〃the　weakness　of　the　young　is　the　principle　of　their　obedience　to　the　old；　who　are　strong；　and　from　habit；　which　is　a　kind　of　conscience　with　them；　the　power　remains　with　the　oldest；　although　he　finally　becomes　the　weakest。
  Whenever　the　society　is　under　the　control　of　a　chief；　this　chief　is　almost　always　the　oldest　of　the　troop。　　I　say　almost　always；　because　the　established　order　may　be　disturbed　by　violent　outbreaks。　　Then　the　authority　passes　to　another；　and；　having　been　re…established　by　force；　it　is　again　maintained　by　habit。　　Wild　horses　go　in　herds：　they　have　a　chief　who　marches　at　their　head；　whom　they　confidently　follow；　and　who　gives　the　signal　for　flight　or　battle。
  〃The　sheep　which　we　have　raised　follows　us；　but　it　follows　in　company　with　the　flock　in　the　midst　of　which　it　was　born。　　It　regards　man　AS　THE　CHIEF　OF　ITS　FLOCK。　。　。　。　　Man　is　regarded　by　domestic　animals　as　a　member　of　theIr　society。　　All　that　he　has　to　do　is　to　get　himself　accepted　by　them　as　an　associate：　he　soon　becomes　their　chief；　in　consequence　of　his　superior　intelligence。　　He　does　not；　then；　change　the　NATURAL　CONDITION　of　these　animals；　as　Buffon　has　said。　　On　the　contrary；　he　uses　this　natural　condition　to　his　own　advantage；　in　other　words；　he　finds　SOCIABLE　animals；　and　renders　them　DOMESTIC　by　becoming　their　associate　and　chief。　　Thus；　the　DOMESTICITY　of　animals　is　only　a　special　condition；　a　simple　modification；　a　definitive　consequence　of　their　SOCIABILITY。　　All　domestic　animals　are　by　nature　sociable　animals。〃　。　。　。Flourens：　　Summary　of　the　Observations　of　F。　Cuvier。
  Sociable　animals　follow　their　chief　by　INSTINCT；　but　take　notice　of　the　fact　（which　F。　Cuvier　omitted　to　state）；　that　the　function　of　the　chief　is　altogether　one　of　INTELLIGENCE。　　The　chief　does　not　teach　the　others　t