Man　is　born　a　social　being；that　is；　he　seeks　equality　and　justice　in　all　his　relations；　but　he　loves　independence　and　praise。　　The　difficulty　of　satisfying　these　various　desires　at　the　same　time　is　the　primary　cause　of　the　despotism　of　the　will；　and　the　appropriation　which　results　from　it。　　On　the　other　hand；　man　always　needs　a　market　for　his　products；　unable　to　compare　values　of　different　kinds；　he　is　satisfied　to　judge　approximately；　according　to　his　passion　and　caprice；　and　he　engages　in　dishonest　commerce；　which　always　results　in　wealth　and　poverty。　　Thus；　the　greatest　evils　which　man　suffers　arise　from　the　misuse　of　his　social　nature；　of　this　same　justice　of　which　he　is　so　proud；　and　which　he　applies　with　such　deplorable　ignorance。
  The　practice　of　justice　is　a　science　which；　when　once　discovered　and　diffused；　will　sooner　or　later　put　an　end　to　social　disorder；　by　teaching　us　our　rights　and　duties。
  This　progressive　and　painful　education　of　our　instinct；　this　slow　and　imperceptible　transformation　of　our　spontaneous　perceptions　into　deliberate　knowledge；　does　not　take　place　among　the　animals；　whose　instincts　remain　fixed；　and　never　become　enlightened。
  〃According　to　Frederic　Cuvier；　who　has　so　clearly　distinguished　between　instinct　and　intelligence　in　animals；　‘instinct　is　a　natural　and　inherent　faculty；　like　feeling；　irritability；　or　intelligence。　　The　wolf　and　the　fox　who　recognize　the　traps　in　which　they　have　been　caught；　and　who　avoid　them；　the　dog　and　the　horse；　who　understand　the　meaning　of　several　of　our　words；　and　who　obey　us；thereby　show　_intelligence_。　　The　dog　who　hides　the　remains　of　his　dinner；　the　bee　who　constructs　his　cell；　the　bird　who　builds　his　nest；　act　only　from　_instinct_。　　Even　man　has　instincts：　it　is　a　special　instinct　which　leads　the　new…born　child　to　suck。　　But；　in　man；　almost　every　thing　is　accomplished　by　intelligence；　and　intelligence　supplements　instinct。　　The　opposite　is　true　of　animals：　their　instinct　is　given　them　as　a　supplement　to　their　intelligence。'〃Flourens：　　Analytical　Summary　of　the　Observations　of　F。　Cuvier。
  〃We　can　form　a　clear　idea　of　instinct　only　by　admitting　that　animals　have　in　their　_sensorium_；　images　or　innate　and　constant　sensations；　which　influence　their　actions　in　the　same　manner　that　ordinary　and　accidental　sensations　commonly　do。　　It　is　a　sort　of　dream；　or　vision；　which　always　follows　them　and　in　all　which　relates　to　instinct　they　may　be　regarded　as　somnambulists。〃F。　Cuvier：　　Introduction　to　the　Animal　Kingdom。
  Intelligence　and　instinct　being　common；　then；　though　in　different　degrees；　to　animals　and　man；　what　is　the　distinguishing　characteristic　of　the　latter？　　According　to　F。　Cuvier；　it　is　REFLECTION　OR　THE　POWER　OF　INTELLECTUALLY　CONSIDERING　OUR　OWN　MODIFICATIONS　BY　A　SURVEY　OF　OURSELVES。　　　　This　lacks　clearness；　and　requires　an　explanation。
  If　we　grant　intelligence　to　animals；　we　must　also　grant　them；　in　some　degree；　reflection；　for；　the　first　cannot　exist　without　the　second；　as　F。　Cuvier　himself　has　proved　by　numerous　examples。　　But　notice　that　the　learned　observer　defines　the　kind　of　reflection　which　distinguishes　us　from　the　animals　as　the　POWER　OF　CONSIDERING　OUR　OWN　MODIFICATIONS。　　This　I　shall　endeavour　to　interpret；　by　developing　to　the　best　of　my　ability　the　laconism　of　the　philosophical　naturalist。
  The　intelligence　acquired　by　animals　never　modifies　the　operations　which　they　perform　by　instinct：　it　is　given　them　only　as　a　provision　against　unexpected　accidents　which　might　disturb　these　operations。　　In　man；　on　the　contrary；　instinctive　action　is　constantly　changing　into　deliberate　action。　　Thus；　man　is　social　by　instinct；　and　is　every　day　becoming　social　by　reflection　and　choice。　　At　first；　he　formed　his　words　by　instinct；＇1＇　he　was　a　poet　by　inspiration：　to…day；　he　makes　grammar　a　science；　and　poetry　an　art。　　His　conception　of　God　and　a　future　life　is　spontaneous　and　instinctive；　and　his　expressions　of　this　conception　have　been；　by　turns；　monstrous；　eccentric；　beautiful；　comforting；　and　terrible。　　All　these　different　creeds；　at　which　the　frivolous　irreligion　of　the　eighteenth　century　mocked；　are　modes　of　expression　of　the　religious　sentiment。　　Some　day；　man　will　explain　to　himself　the　character　of　the　God　whom　he　believes　in；　and　the　nature　of　that　other　world　to　which　his　soul　aspires。
  ＇1＇　　〃The　problem　of　the　origin　of　language　is　solved　by　the　distinction　made　by　Frederic　Cuvier　between　instinct　and　intelligence。　　Language　is　not　a　premeditated；　arbitrary；　or　conventional　device；　nor　is　it　communicated　or　revealed　to　us　by　God。　　Language　is　an　instinctive　and　unpremeditated　creation　of　man；　as　the　hive　is　of　the　bee。　　In　this　sense；　it　may　be　said　that　language　is　not　the　work　of　man；　since　it　is　not　the　work　of　his　mind。　　Further；　the　mechanism　of　language　seems　more　wonderful　and　ingenious　when　it　is　not　regarded　as　the　result　of　reflection。　　This　fact　is　one　of　the　most　curious　and　indisputable　which　philology　has　observed。　　See；　among　other　works；　a　Latin　essay　by　F。　G。　Bergmann　（Strasbourg；　1839）；　in　which　the　learned　author　explains　how　the　phonetic　germ　is　born　of　sensation；　how　language　passes　through　three　successive　stages　of　development；　why　man；　endowed　at　birth　with　the　instinctive　faculty　of　creating　a　language；　loses　this　faculty　as　fast　as　his　mind　develops；　and　that　the　study　of　languages　is　real　natural　history；in　fact；　a　science。　　France　possesses　to…day　several　philologists　of　the　first　rank；　endowed　with　rare　talents　and　deep　philosophic　insight；modest　savants　developing　a　science　almost　without　the　knowledge　of　the　public；　devoting　themselves　to　studies　which　are　scornfully　looked　down　upon；　and　seeming　to　shun　applause　as　much　as　others　seek　it。〃
  All　that　he　does　from　instinct　man　despises；　or；　if　he　admires　it；　it　is　as　Nature's　work；　not　as　his　own。　　This　explains　the　obscurity　which　surrounds　the　names　of　early　inventors；　it　explains　also　our　indifference　to　religious　matters；　and　the　ridicule　heaped　upon　religious　customs。　　Man　esteems　only　the　products　of　reflection　and　of　reason。　　The　most　wonderful　works　of　instinct　are；　in　his　eyes；　only　lucky　GOD…SENDS；　he　reserves　the　name　DISCOVERYI　had　almost　said　creationfor　the　works　of　intelligence。　　Instinct　is　the　source　of　passion　and　enthusiasm；　it　is　intelligence　which　causes　crime　and　virtue。
  In　developing　his　intelligence；　man　makes　use　of　not　only　his　own　observations；　but　also　those　of　others。　　He　keeps　an　account　of　his　experience；　and　preserves　the　record；　so　that　the　race；　as　well　as　the　individual；　becomes　more　and　more　intelligent。　　The　animals　do　not　transmit　their　knowledge；　that　which　each　individual　accumulates　dies　with　him。
  It　is　not　enough；　then；　to　say　that　we　are　distinguished　from　the　animals　by　reflection；　unless　we　mean　thereby　the　CONSTANT　TENDENCY　OF　OUR　INSTINCT　TO　BECOME　INTELLIGENCE。　　While　man　is　governed　by　instinct；　he　is　unconscious　of　his　acts。　　He　never　would　deceive　himself；　and　never　would　be　troubled　by　errors；　evils；　and　disorder；　if；　like　the　animals；　instinct　were　his　only　guide。　　But　the　Creator　has　endowed　us　with　reflection；　to　the　end　that　our　instinct　might　become　intelligence；　and　since　this　reflection　and　resulting　knowledge　pass　through　various　stages；　it　happens　that　in　the　beginning　our　instinct　is　opposed；　rather　than　guided；　by　reflection；　consequently；　that　our　power　of　thought　leads　us　to　act　in　opposition　to　our　nature　and　our　end；　that；　deceiving　ourselves；　we　do　and　suffer　evil；　until　instinct　which　points　us　towards　good；　and　reflection　which　makes　us　stumble　into　evil；　are　replaced　by　the　science　of　good　and　evil；　which　invariably　causes　us　to　seek　the　one　and　avoid　the　other。
  Thus；　evilor　error　and　its　consequencesis　the　firstborn　son　of　the　union　of　two　opposing　faculties；　instinct　and　reflection；　good；　or　truth；　must　inevitably　be　the　second　child。　　Or；　to　again　employ　the　figure；　evil　is　the　product　of　incest　between　adverse　powers；　good　will　sooner　or　later　be　the　legitimate　child　of　their　holy　and　mysterious　union。
  Property；　born　of　the　reasoning　faculty；　intrenches　itself　behind　comparisons。　　But；　just　as　reflection　and　reason　are　subsequent　to　spontaneity；　observation　to　sensation；　and　experience　to　instinct；　so　property　is　subsequent　to　communism。　　Communismor　association　in　a　simple　formis　the　necessary　object　and　original　aspiration　of　the　social　nature；　the　spontaneous　movement　by　which　it　manifests　and　establishes　itself。　　It　is　the　first　phase　of　human　civilization。　　In　this　state　of　society；　which　the　jurists　have　called　NEGATIVE　COMMUNISMman　draws　near　to　man；　and　shares　with　him　the　fruits　of　the　field　and　the　milk　and　flesh　of　animals。　　Little　by　little　this　communism　negative　as　long　as　man　does　not　producetends　to　become　positive　and　organic　through　the　development　of　labor　and　industry。　　But　it　is　then　that　the　sovereignty　of　thought；　and　the　terrible　faculty　of　reasoning　logically　or　illogically；　teach　man　that；　if　equality　is　the　sine　qua　non　of　society；　communism　is　the　first　species　of　slavery。　To　express　this　idea　by　an　Hegelian　formula；　I　will　say：
  Communismthe　first　expression　of　the　social　natureis　the　first　term　of　social　development；the　THESIS；　property