present　themselves。　　This　right　disappears　if　the　public　interest　requires　it；　which；　being　the　social　interest；　is　also　that　of　the　occupant。
  What　is　the　right　of　labor？　　It　is　the　right　to　obtain　one's　share　of　wealth　by　fulfilling　the　required　conditions。　　It　is　the　right　of　society；　the　right　of　equality。
  Justice；　which　is　the　product　of　the　combination　of　an　idea　and　an　instinct；　manifests　itself　in　man　as　soon　as　he　is　capable　of　feeling；　and　of　forming　ideas。　　Consequently；　it　has　been　regarded　as　an　innate　and　original　sentiment；　but　this　opinion　is　logically　and　chronologically　false。　　But　justice；　by　its　composition　hybridif　I　may　use　the　term；justice；　born　of　emotion　and　intellect　combined；　seems　to　me　one　of　the　strongest　proofs　of　the　unity　and　simplicity　of　the　ego；　the　organism　being　no　more　capable　of　producing　such　a　mixture　by　itself；　than　are　the　combined　senses　of　hearing　and　sight　of　forming　a　binary　sense；　half　auditory　and　half　visual。
  This　double　nature　of　justice　gives　us　the　definitive　basis　of　all　the　demonstrations　in　Chapters　II。；　III。；　and　IV。　　On　the　one　hand；　the　idea　of　JUSTICE　being　identical　with　that　of　society；　and　society　necessarily　implying　equality；　equality　must　underlie　all　the　sophisms　invented　in　defence　of　property；　for；　since　property　can　be　defended　only　as　a　just　and　social　institution；　and　property　being　inequality；　in　order　to　prove　that　property　is　in　harmony　with　society；　it　must　be　shown　that　injustice　is　justice；　and　that　inequality　is　equality；a　contradiction　in　terms。　　On　the　other　hand；　since　the　idea　of　equalitythe　second　element　of　justicehas　its　source　in　the　mathematical　proportions　of　things；　and　since　property；　or　the　unequal　distribution　of　wealth　among　laborers；　destroys　the　necessary　balance　between　labor；　production；　and　consumption；property　must　be　impossible。
  All　men；　then；　are　associated；　all　are　entitled　to　the　same　justice；　all　are　equal。　　Does　it　follow　that　the　preferences　of　love　and　friendship　are　unjust？
  This　requires　explanation。　　I　have　already　supposed　the　case　of　a　man　in　peril；　I　being　in　a　position　to　help　him。　　Now；　I　suppose　myself　appealed　to　at　the　same　time　by　two　men　exposed　to　danger。
  Am　I　not　allowedam　I　not　commanded　evento　rush　first　to　the　aid　of　him　who　is　endeared　to　me　by　ties　of　blood；　friendship；　acquaintance；　or　esteem；　at　the　risk　of　leaving　the　other　to　perish？　　Yes。　　And　why？　　Because　within　universal　society　there　exist　for　each　of　us　as　many　special　societies　as　there　are　individuals；　and　we　are　bound；　by　the　principle　of　sociability　itself；　to　fulfil　the　obligations　which　these　impose　upon　us；　according　to　the　intimacy　of　our　relations　with　them。　　Therefore　we　must　give　our　father；　mother；　children；　friends；　relatives；　&c。；　the　preference　over　all　others。　　But　in　what　consists　this　preference？
  A　judge　has　a　case　to　decide；　in　which　one　of　the　parties　is　his　friend；　and　the　other　his　enemy。　　Should　he；　in　this　instance；　prefer　his　INTIMATE　ASSOCIATE　to　his　DISTANT　ASSOCIATE；　and　decide　the　case　in　favor　of　his　friend；　in　spite　of　evidence　to　the　contrary？　　No：　for；　if　he　should　favor　his　friend's　injustice；　he　would　become　his　accomplice　in　his　violation　of　the　social　compact；　he　would　form　with　him　a　sort　of　conspiracy　against　the　social　body。　　Preference　should　be　shown　only　in　personal　matters；　such　as　love；　esteem；　confidence；　or　intimacy；　when　all　cannot　be　considered　at　once。　　Thus；　in　case　of　fire；　a　father　would　save　his　own　child　before　thinking　of　his　neighbor's；　but　the　recognition　of　a　right　not　being　an　optional　matter　with　a　judge；　he　is　not　at　liberty　to　favor　one　person　to　the　detriment　of　another。
  The　theory　of　these　special　societieswhich　are　formed　concentrically；　so　to　speak；　by　each　of　us　inside　of　the　main　bodygives　the　key　to　all　the　problems　which　arise　from　the　opposition　and　conflict　of　the　different　varieties　of　social　duty；problems　upon　which　the　ancient　tragedies　are　based。
  The　justice　practised　among　animals　is；　in　a　certain　degree；　negative。　　With　the　exception　of　protecting　their　young；　hunting　and　plundering　in　troops；　uniting　for　common　defence　and　sometimes　for　individual　assistance；　it　consists　more　in　prevention　than　in　action。　　A　sick　animal　who　cannot　arise　from　the　ground；　or　an　imprudent　one　who　has　fallen　over　a　precipice；　receives　neither　medicine　nor　nourishment。　　If　he　cannot　cure　himself；　nor　relieve　himself　of　his　trouble；　his　life　is　in　danger：　he　will　neither　be　cared　for　in　bed；　nor　fed　in　a　prison。
  Their　neglect　of　their　fellows　arises　as　much　from　the　weakness　of　their　intellect　as　from　their　lack　of　resources。　　Still；　the　degrees　of　intimacy　common　among　men　are　not　unknown　to　the　animals。　　They　have　friendships　of　habit　and　of　choice；　friendships　neighborly；　and　friendships　parental。　　In　comparison　with　us；　they　have　feeble　memories；　sluggish　feelings；　and　are　almost　destitute　of　intelligence；　but　the　identity　of　these　faculties　is　preserved　to　some　extent；　and　our　superiority　in　this　respect　arises　entirely　from　our　understanding。
  It　is　our　strength　of　memory　and　penetration　of　judgment　which　enable　us　to　multiply　and　combine　the　acts　which　our　social　instinct　impels　us　to　perform；　and　which　teaches　us　how　to　render　them　more　effective；　and　how　to　distribute　them　justly。　　The　beasts　who　live　in　society　practise　justice；　but　are　ignorant　of　its　nature；　and　do　not　reason　upon　it；　they　obey　their　instinct　without　thought　or　philosophy。　　They　know　not　how　to　unite　the　social　sentiment　with　the　idea　of　equality；　which　they　do　not　possess；　this　idea　being　an　abstract　one。　　We；　on　the　contrary；　starting　with　the　principle　that　society　implies　equality；　can；　by　our　reasoning　faculty；　understand　and　agree　with　each　other　in　settling　our　rights；　we　have　even　used　our　judgment　to　a　great　extent。　　But　in　all　this　our　conscience　plays　a　small　part；　as　is　proved　by　the　fact　that　the　idea　of　RIGHTof　which　we　catch　a　glimpse　in　certain　animals　who　approach　nearer　than　any　others　to　our　standard　of　intelligenceseems　to　grow；　from　the　low　level　at　which　it　stands　in　savages；　to　the　lofty　height　which　it　reaches　in　a　Plato　or　a　Franklin。　　If　we　trace　the　development　of　the　moral　sense　in　individuals；　and　the　progress　of　laws　in　nations；　we　shall　be　convinced　that　the　ideas　of　justice　and　legislative　perfection　are　always　proportional　to　intelligence。　　The　notion　of　justicewhich　has　been　regarded　by　some　philosophers　as　simpleis　then；　in　reality；　complex。　　It　springs　from　the　social　instinct　on　the　one　hand；　and　the　idea　of　equality　on　the　other；　just　as　the　notion　of　guilt　arises　from　the　feeling　that　justice　has　been　violated；　and　from　the　idea　of　free…will。
  In　conclusion；　instinct　is　not　modified　by　acquaintance　with　its　nature；　and　the　facts　of　society；　which　we　have　thus　far　observed；　occur　among　beasts　as　well　as　men。　　We　know　the　meaning　of　justice；　in　other　words；　of　sociability　viewed　from　the　standpoint　of　equality。　　We　have　met　with　nothing　which　separates　us　from　the　animals。
  ％　3。Of　the　third　degree　of　Sociability。
  The　reader；　perhaps；　has　not　forgotten　what　was　said　in　the　third　chapter　concerning　the　division　of　labor　and　the　speciality　of　talents。　　The　sum　total　of　the　talents　and　capacities　of　the　race　is　always　the　same；　and　their　nature　is　always　similar。　　We　are　all　born　poets；　mathematicians；　philosophers；　artists；　artisans；　or　farmers；　but　we　are　not　born　equally　endowed；　and　between　one　man　and　another　in　society；　or　between　one　faculty　and　another　in　the　same　individual；　there　is　an　infinite　difference。　　This　difference　of　degree　in　the　same　faculties；　this　predominance　of　talent　in　certain　directions；　is；　we　have　said；　the　very　foundation　of　our　society。　　Intelligence　and　natural　genius　have　been　distributed　by　Nature　so　economically；　and　yet　so　liberally；　that　in　society　there　is　no　danger　of　either　a　surplus　or　a　scarcity　of　special　talents；　and　that　each　laborer；　by　devoting　himself　to　his　function；　may　always　attain　to　the　degree　of　proficiency　necessary　to　enable　him　to　benefit　by　the　labors　and　discoveries　of　his　fellows。　　Owing　to　this　simple　and　wise　precaution　of　Nature；　the　laborer　is　not　isolated　by　his　task。　　He　communicates　with　his　fellows　through　the　mind；　before　he　is　united　with　them　in　heart；　so　that　with　him　love　is　born　of　intelligence。
  It　is　not　so　with　societies　of　animals。　　In　every　species；　the　aptitudes　of　all　the　individualsthough　very　limitedare　equal　in　number　and　（when　they　are　not　the　result　of　instinct）　in　intensity。　　Each　one　does　as　well　as　all　the　others　what　all　the　others　do；　provides　his　food；　avoids　the　enemy；　burrows　in　the　earth；　builds　a　nest；　&c。　　No　animal；　when　free　and　healthy；　expects　or　requires　the　aid　of　his　neighbor；　who；　in　his　turn；　is　equally　independent。
  Associated　animals　live　side　by　side　without　any　intellectual　intercourse　or　intimate　communication；all　doing　the　same　things；　having　nothing　to　learn　or　to　remember；　they　see；　feel；　and　come　in　contact　with　each　other；　but　never　penetrate　each　other。　　Man　continually　exchanges　with　man　ideas　and　feelings；　products　and　services。　　Every　discovery　and　act　in　society　is　necessary　to　him。　　But　of　this　immense　quantity　of　product