to　which　our　reasoning　powers　are　not　applicable。　　Now；　just　as　the　knowledge　of　external　phenomena；　which　we　acquire；　has　no　influence　upon　their　causes　and　laws；　so　reflection；　by　illuminating　our　instinct；　enlightens　us　as　to　our　sentient　nature；　but　does　not　alter　its　character；　it　tells　us　what　our　morality　is；　but　neither　changes　nor　modifies　it。　　Our　dissatisfaction　with　ourselves　after　doing　wrong；　the　indignation　which　we　feel　at　the　sight　of　injustice；　the　idea　of　deserved　punishment　and　due　remuneration；　are　effects　of　reflection；　and　not　immediate　effects　of　instinct　and　emotion。　　Our　appreciation　（I　do　not　say　exclusive　appreciation；　for　the　animals　also　realize　that　they　have　done　wrong；　and　are　indignant　when　one　of　their　number　is　attacked；　but）；　our　infinitely　superior　appreciation　of　our　social　duties；　our　knowledge　of　good　and　evil；　does　not　establish；　as　regards　morality；　any　vital　difference　between　man　and　the　beasts。
  ％　2。Of　the　first　and　second　degrees　of　Sociability。
  I　insist　upon　the　fact；　which　I　have　just　pointed　out；　as　one　of　the　most　important　facts　of　anthropology。
  The　sympathetic　attraction；　which　causes　us　to　associate；　is；　by　reason　of　its　blind；　unruly　nature；　always　governed　by　temporary　impulse；　without　regard　to　higher　rights；　and　without　distinction　of　merit　or　priority。　　The　bastard　dog　follows　indifferently　all　who　call　it；　the　suckling　child　regards　every　man　as　its　father　and　every　woman　as　its　nurse；　every　living　creature；　when　deprived　of　the　society　of　animals　of　its　species；　seeks　companionship　in　its　solitude。　　This　fundamental　characteristic　of　the　social　instinct　renders　intolerable　and　even　hateful　the　friendship　of　frivolous　persons；　liable　to　be　infatuated　with　every　new　face；　accommodating　to　all　whether　good　or　bad；　and　ready　to　sacrifice；　for　a　passing　liaison；　the　oldest　and　most　honorable　affections。　　The　fault　of　such　beings　is　not　in　the　heartit　is　in　the　judgment。　　Sociability；　in　this　degree；　is　a　sort　of　magnetism　awakened　in　us　by　the　contemplation　of　a　being　similar　to　ourselves；　but　which　never　goes　beyond　the　person　who　feels　it；　it　may　be　reciprocated；　but　not　communicated。　　Love；　benevolence；　pity；　sympathy；　call　it　what　you　will；　there　is　nothing　in　it　which　deserves　esteem；nothing　which　lifts　man　above　the　beast。
  The　second　degree　of　sociability　is　justice；　which　may　be　defined　as　the　RECOGNITION　OF　THE　EQUALITY　BETWEEN　ANOTHER'S　PERSONALITY　AND　OUR　OWN。　　The　sentiment　of　justice　we　share　with　the　animals；　we　alone　can　form　an　exact　idea　of　it；　but　our　idea；　as　has　been　said　already；　does　not　change　its　nature。　　We　shall　soon　see　how　man　rises　to　a　third　degree　of　sociability　which　the　animals　are　incapable　of　reaching。　　But　I　must　first　prove　by　metaphysics　that　SOCIETY；　JUSTICE；　and　EQUALITY；　are　three　equivalent　terms；three　expressions　meaning　the　same　thing；　whose　mutual　conversion　is　always　allowable。
  If；　amid　the　confusion　of　a　shipwreck；　having　escaped　in　a　boat　with　some　provisions；　I　see　a　man　struggling　with　the　waves；　am　I　bound　to　go　to　his　assistance？　　Yes；　I　am　bound　under　penalty　of　being　adjudged　guilty　of　murder　and　treason　against　society。
  But　am　I　also　bound　to　share　with　him　my　provisions？
  To　settle　this　question；　we　must　change　the　phraseology。　　If　society　is　binding　on　the　boat；　is　it　also　binding　on　the　provisions？　　Undoubtedly。　　The　duty　of　an　associate　is　absolute。　　Man's　occupancy　succeeds　his　social　nature；　and　is　subordinate　to　it；　possession　can　become　exclusive　only　when　permission　to　occupy　is　granted　to　all　alike。　　That　which　in　this　instance　obscures　our　duty　is　our　power　of　foresight；　which；　causing　us　to　fear　an　eventual　danger；　impels　us　to　usurpation；　and　makes　us　robbers　and　murderers。　　Animals　do　not　calculate　the　duty　of　instinct　any　more　than　the　disadvantages　resulting　to　those　who　exercise　it；　it　would　be　strange　if　the　intellect　of　man　the　most　sociable　of　animalsshould　lead　him　to　disobey　the　law。
  He　betrays　society　who　attempts　to　use　it　only　for　his　own　advantage；　better　that　God　should　deprive　us　of　prudence；　if　it　is　to　serve　as　the　tool　of　our　selfishness。
  〃What！〃　you　will　say；　〃must　I　share　my　bread；　the　bread　which　I　have　earned　and　which　belongs　to　me；　with　the　stranger　whom　I　do　not　know；　whom　I　may　never　see　again；　and　who；　perhaps；　will　reward　me　with　ingratitude？　　If　we　had　earned　this　bread　together；　if　this　man　had　done　something　to　obtain　it；　he　might　demand　his　share；　since　his　co…operation　would　entitle　him　to　it；　but　as　it　is；　what　claim　has　he　on　me？　　We　have　not　produced　togetherwe　shall　not　eat　together。〃
  The　fallacy　in　this　argument　lies　in　the　false　supposition；　that　each　producer　is　not　necessarily　associated　with　every　other　producer。
  When　two　or　more　individuals　have　regularly　organized　a　society；when　the　contracts　have　been　agreed　upon；　drafted；　and　signed；there　is　no　difficulty　about　the　future。　　Everybody　knows　that　when　two　men　associatefor　instancein　order　to　fish；　if　one　of　them　catches　no　fish；　he　is　none　the　less　entitled　to　those　caught　by　his　associate。　　If　two　merchants　form　a　partnership；　while　the　partnership　lasts；　the　profits　and　losses　are　divided　between　them；　since　each　produces；　not　for　himself；　but　for　the　society：　when　the　time　of　distribution　arrives；　it　is　not　the　producer　who　is　considered；　but　the　associate。　　That　is　why　the　slave；　to　whom　the　planter　gives　straw　and　rice；　and　the　civilized　laborer；　to　whom　the　capitalist　pays　a　salary　which　is　always　too　small；not　being　associated　with　their　employers；　although　producing　with　them；are　disregarded　when　the　product　is　divided。　　Thus；　the　horse　who　draws　our　coaches；　and　the　ox　who　draws　our　carts　produce　with　us；　but　are　not　associated　with　us；　we　take　their　product；　but　do　not　share　it　with　them。　　The　animals　and　laborers　whom　we　employ　hold　the　same　relation　to　us。　　Whatever　we　do　for　them；　we　do；　not　from　a　sense　of　justice；　but　out　of　pure　benevolence。＇1＇
  ＇1＇　To　perform　an　act　of　benevolence　towards　one's　neighbor　is　called；　in　Hebrew；　to　do　justice；　in　Greek；　to　take　compassion　or　pity　（｛GREEK　n　n　f　e　　｝；from　which　is　derived　the　French　_aumone_）；　in　Latin；　to　perform　an　act　of　love　or　charity；　in　French；　give　alms。　　We　can　trace　the　degradation　of　this　principle　through　these　various　expressions：　the　first　signifies　duty；　the　second　only　sympathy；　the　third；　affection；　a　matter　of　choice；　not　an　obligation；　the　fourth；　caprice。
  But　is　it　possible　that　we　are　not　all　associated？　　Let　us　call　to　mind　what　was　said　in　the　last　two　chapters；　That　even　though　we　do　not　want　to　be　associated；　the　force　of　things；　the　necessity　of　consumption；　the　laws　of　production；　and　the　mathematical　principle　of　exchange　combine　to　associate　us。　　There　is　but　a　single　exception　to　this　rule；that　of　the　proprietor；　who；　producing　by　his　right　of　increase；　is　not　associated　with　any　one；　and　consequently　is　not　obliged　to　share　his　product　with　any　one；　just　as　no　one　else　is　bound　to　share　with　him。　　With　the　exception　of　the　proprietor；　we　labor　for　each　other；　we　can　do　nothing　by　ourselves　unaided　by　others；　and　we　continually　exchange　products　and　services　with　each　other。　　If　these　are　not　social　acts；　what　are　they？
  Now；　neither　a　commercial；　nor　an　industrial；　nor　an　agricultural　association　can　be　conceived　of　in　the　absence　of　equality；　equality　is　its　sine　qua　non。　　So　that；　in　all　matters　which　concern　this　association；　to　violate　society　is　to　violate　justice　and　equality。　　Apply　this　principle　to　humanity　at　large。
  After　what　has　been　said；　I　assume　that　the　reader　has　sufficient　insight　to　enable　him　to　dispense　with　any　aid　of　mine。
  By　this　principle；　the　man　who　takes　possession　of　a　field；　and　says；　〃This　field　is　mine；〃　will　not　be　unjust　so　long　as　every　one　else　has　an　equal　right　of　possession；　nor　will　he　be　unjust；　if；　wishing　to　change　his　location；　he　exchanges　this　field　for　an　equivalent。　　But　if；　putting　another　in　his　place；　he　says　to　him；　〃Work　for　me　while　I　rest；〃　he　then　becomes　unjust；　unassociated；　UNEQUAL。　　He　is　a　proprietor。
  Reciprocally；　the　sluggard；　or　the　rake；　who；　without　performing　any　social　task；　enjoys　like　othersand　often　more　than　others　the　products　of　society；　should　be　proceeded　against　as　a　thief　and　a　parasite。　　We　owe　it　to　ourselves　to　give　him　nothing；　but；　since　he　must　live；　to　put　him　under　supervision；　and　compel　him　to　labor。
  Sociability　is　the　attraction　felt　by　sentient　beings　for　each　other。　　Justice　is　this　same　attraction；　accompanied　by　thought　and　knowledge。　　But　under　what　general　concept；　in　what　category　of　the　understanding；　is　justice　placed？　　In　the　category　of　equal　quantities。　　Hence；　the　ancient　definition　of　justice　_Justum　aequale　est；　injustum　inaequale_。　　What　is　it；　then；　to　practise　justice？　　It　is　to　give　equal　wealth　to　each；　on　condition　of　equal　labor。　　It　is　to　act　socially。　　Our　selfishness　may　complain；　there　is　no　escape　from　evidence　and　necessity。
  What　is　the　right　of　occupancy？　　It　is　a　natural　method　of　dividing　the　earth；　by　reducing　each　laborer's　share　as　fast　as　new　laborers　present　themselves。　　This　right　disappears　if　the　public　interest　requires　it；　which；　being　the　soci