PART　FIRST。
  ％　1。Of　the　Moral　Sense　in　Man　and　the　Animals。
  The　philosophers　have　endeavored　often　to　locate　the　line　which　separates　man's　intelligence　from　that　of　the　brutes；　and；　according　to　their　general　custom；　they　gave　utterance　to　much　foolishness　before　resolving　upon　the　only　course　possible　for　them　to　take；observation。　　It　was　reserved　for　an　unpretending　savantwho　perhaps　did　not　pride　himself　on　his　philosophyto　put　an　end　to　the　interminable　controversy　by　a　simple　distinction；　but　one　of　those　luminous　distinctions　which　are　worth　more　than　systems。　　Frederic　Cuvier　separated　INSTINCT　from　INTELLIGENCE。
  But；　as　yet；　no　one　has　proposed　this　question：
  IS　THE　DIFFERENCE　BETWEEN　MAN'S　MORAL　SENSE　AND　THAT　OF　THE　BRUTE　A　DIFFERENCE　IN　KIND　OR　ONLY　IN　DEGREE？
  If；　hitherto；　any　one　had　dared　to　maintain　the　latter　alternative；　his　arguments　would　have　seemed　scandalous；　blasphemous；　and　offensive　to　morality　and　religion。　　The　ecclesiastical　and　secular　tribunals　would　have　condemned　him　with　one　voice。　　And；　mark　the　style　in　which　they　would　have　branded　the　immoral　paradox！　　〃Conscience；〃they　would　have　cried；〃conscience；　man's　chief　glory；　was　given　to　him　exclusively；　the　notion　of　justice　and　injustice；　of　merit　and　demerit；　is　his　noble　privilege；　to　man；　alone；the　lord　of　creation；belongs　the　sublime　power　to　resist　his　worldly　propensities；　to　choose　between　good　and　evil；　and　to　bring　himself　more　and　more　into　the　resemblance　of　God　through　liberty　and　justice。　。　。　。　　No；　the　holy　image　of　virtue　was　never　graven　save　on　the　heart　of　man。〃　　Words　full　of　feeling；　but　void　of　sense。
  Man　is　a　rational　and　social　animal｛GREEK　　‘　c　g｝said　Aristotle。　　This　definition　is　worth　more　than　all　which　have　been　given　since。　　I　do　not　except　even　M。　de　Bonald's　celebrated　definition；MAN　IS　AN　INTELLECT　SERVED　BY　ORGANSa　definition　which　has　the　double　fault　of　explaining　the　known　by　the　unknown；　that　is；　the　living　being　by　the　intellect；　and　of　neglecting　man's　essential　quality；animality。
  Man；　then；　is　an　animal　living　in　society。　　Society　means　the　sum　total　of　relationships；　in　short；　system。　　Now；　all　systems　exist　only　on　certain　conditions。　　What；　then；　are　the　conditions；　the　LAWS；　of　human　society？
  What　are　the　RIGHTS　of　men　with　respect　to　each　other；　what　is　JUSTICE？
  It　amounts　to　nothing　to　say；with　the　philosophers　of　various　schools；〃It　is　a　divine　instinct；　an　immortal　and　heavenly　voice；　a　guide　given　us　by　Nature；　a　light　revealed　unto　every　man　on　coming　into　the　world；　a　law　engraved　upon　our　hearts；　it　is　the　voice　of　conscience；　the　dictum　of　reason；　the　inspiration　of　sentiment；　the　penchant　of　feeling；　it　is　the　love　of　self　in　others；　it　is　enlightened　self…interest；　or　else　it　is　an　innate　idea；　the　imperative　command　of　applied　reason；　which　has　its　source　in　the　concepts　of　pure　reason；　it　is　a　passional　attraction；〃　&c。；　&c。　　This　may　be　as　true　as　it　seems　beautiful；　but　it　is　utterly　meaningless。　　Though　we　should　prolong　this　litany　through　ten　pages　（it　has　been　filtered　through　a　thousand　volumes）；　we　should　be　no　nearer　to　the　solution　of　the　question。
  〃Justice　is　public　utility；〃　says　Aristotle。　　That　is　true；　but　it　is　a　tautology。　　〃The　principle　that　the　public　welfare　ought　to　be　the　object　of　the　legislator〃says　M。　Ch。　Comte　in　his　〃Treatise　on　Legislation〃〃cannot　be　overthrown。　　But　legislation　is　advanced　no　farther　by　its　announcement　and　demonstration；　than　is　medicine　when　it　is　said　that　it　is　the　business　of　physicians　to　cure　the　sick。〃
  Let　us　take　another　course。　　RUGHT　is　the　sum　total　of　the　principles　which　govern　society。　　Justice；　in　man；　is　the　respect　and　observation　of　those　principles。　　To　practise　justice　is　to　obey　the　social　instinct；　to　do　an　act　of　justice　is　to　do　a　social　act。　　If；　then；　we　watch　the　conduct　of　men　towards　each　other　under　different　circumstances；　it　will　be　easy　for　us　to　distinguish　between　the　presence　and　absence　of　society；　from　the　result　we　may　inductively　infer　the　law。
  Let　us　commence　with　the　simplest　and　least　doubtful　cases。
  The　mother；　who　protects　her　son　at　the　peril　of　her　life；　and　sacrifices　every　thing　to　his　support；　is　in　society　with　him　she　is　a　good　mother。　　She；　on　the　contrary；　who　abandons　her　child；　is　unfaithful　to　the　social　instinct；maternal　love　being　one　of　its　many　features；　she　is　an　unnatural　mother。
  If　I　plunge　into　the　water　to　rescue　a　drowning　man；　I　am　his　brother；　his　associate；　if；　instead　of　aiding　him；　I　sink　him；　I　am　his　enemy；　his　murderer。
  Whoever　bestows　alms　treats　the　poor　man　as　his　associate；　not　thoroughly；　it　is　true；　but　only　in　respect　to　the　amount　which　he　shares　with　him。　　Whoever　takes　by　force　or　stratagem　that　which　is　not　the　product　of　his　labor；　destroys　his　social　characterhe　is　a　brigand。
  The　Samaritan　who　relieves　the　traveller　lying　by　the　wayside；　dresses　his　wounds；　comforts　him；　and　supplies　him　with　money；　thereby　declares　himself　his　associatehis　neighbor；　the　priest；　who　passes　by　on　the　other　side；　remains　unassociated；　and　is　his　enemy。
  In　all　these　cases；　man　is　moved　by　an　internal　attraction　towards　his　fellow；　by　a　secret　sympathy　which　causes　him　to　love；　congratulate；　and　condole；　so　that；　to　resist　this　attraction；　his　will　must　struggle　against　his　nature。
  But　in　these　respects　there　is　no　decided　difference　between　man　and　the　animals。　　With　them；　as　long　as　the　weakness　of　their　young　endears　them　to　their　mothers；in　a　word；　associates　them　with　their　mothers；the　latter　protect　the　former；　at　the　peril　of　their　lives；　with　a　courage　which　reminds　us　of　our　heroes　dying　for　their　country。　　Certain　species　unite　for　hunting　purposes；　seek　each　other；　call　each　other　（a　poet　would　say　invite　each　other）；　to　share　their　prey；　in　danger　they　aid；　protect；　and　warn　each　other。　　The　elephant　knows　how　to　help　his　companion　out　of　the　ditch　into　which　the　latter　has　fallen。　　Cows　form　a　circle；　with　their　horns　outward　and　their　calves　in　the　centre；　in　order　to　repel　the　attacks　of　wolves。　　Horses　and　pigs；　on　hearing　a　cry　of　distress　from　one　of　their　number；　rush　to　the　spot　whence　it　comes。　　What　descriptions　I　might　give　of　their　marriages；　the　tenderness　of　the　males　towards　the　females；　and　the　fidelity　of　their　loves！　　Let　us　add；　however；to　be　entirely　justthat　these　touching　demonstrations　of　society；　fraternity；　and　love　of　neighbor；　do　not　prevent　the　animals　from　quarrelling；　fighting；　and　outrageously　abusing　one　another　while　gaining　their　livelihood　and　showing　their　gallantry；　the　resemblance　between　them　and　ourselves　is　perfect。
  The　social　instinct；　in　man　and　beast；　exists　to　a　greater　or　less　degreeits　nature　is　the　same。　　Man　has　the　greater　need　of　association；　and　employs　it　more；　the　animal　seems　better　able　to　endure　isolation。　　In　man；　social　needs　are　more　imperative　and　complex；　in　the　beast；　they　seem　less　intense；　less　diversified；　less　regretted。　　Society；　in　a　word；　aims；　in　the　case　of　man；　at　the　preservation　of　the　race　and　the　individual；　with　the　animals；　its　object　is　more　exclusively　the　preservation　of　the　race。
  As　yet；　we　have　met　with　no　claim　which　man　can　make　for　himself　alone。　　The　social　instinct　and　the　moral　sense　he　shares　with　the　brutes；　and　when　he　thinks　to　become　god…like　by　a　few　acts　of　charity；　justice；　and　devotion；　he　does　not　perceive　that　in　so　acting　he　simply　obeys　an　instinct　wholly　animal　in　its　nature。　　As　we　are　good；　loving；　tender；　just；　so　we　are　passionate；　greedy；　lewd；　and　vindictive；　that　is；　we　are　like　the　beasts。　　Our　highest　virtues　appear；　in　the　last　analysis；　as　blind；　impulsive　instincts。　　What　subjects　for　canonization　and　apotheosis！
  There　is；　however；　a　difference　between　us　two…handed　bipeds　and　other　living　creatureswhat　is　it？
  A　student　of　philosophy　would　hasten　to　reply：　　〃This　difference　lies　in　the　fact　that　we　are　conscious　of　our　social　faculty；　while　the　animals　are　unconscious　of　theirsin　the　fact　that　while　we　reflect　and　reason　upon　the　operation　of　our　social　instinct；　the　animals　do　nothing　of　the　kind。〃
  I　will　go　farther。　　It　is　by　our　reflective　and　reasoning　powers；　with　which　we　seem　to　be　exclusively　endowed；　that　we　know　that　it　is　injurious；　first　to　others　and　then　to　ourselves；　to　resist　the　social　instinct　which　governs　us；　and　which　we　call　JUSTICE。　　It　is　our　reason　which　teaches　us　that　the　selfish　man；　the　robber；　the　murdererin　a　word；　the　traitor　to　societysins　against　Nature；　and　is　guilty　with　respect　to　others　and　himself；　when　he　does　wrong　wilfully。　　Finally；　it　is　our　social　sentiment　on　the　one　hand；　and　our　reason　on　the　other；　which　cause　us　to　think　that　beings　such　as　we　should　take　the　responsibility　of　their　acts。　　Such　is　the　principle　of　remorse；　revenge；　and　penal　justice。
  But　this　proves　only　an　intellectual　diversity　between　the　animals　and　man；　not　at　all　an　affectional　one；　for；　although　we　reason　upon　our　relations　with　our　fellows；　we　likewise　reason　upon　our　most　trivial　actions；such　as　drinking；　eating；　choosing　a　wife；　or　selecting　a　dwelling…place。　　We　reason　upon　things　earthly　and　things　heavenly；　there　is　nothing　to　which　our　reasoning　powers　are