；　they　immediately　fall　back　into　absurdity。　　For　twenty…five　years　political　economy；　like　a　heavy　fog；　has　weighed　upon　France；　checking　the　efforts　of　the　mind；　and　setting　limits　to　liberty。
  Has　every　creation　of　industry　a　venal；　absolute；　unchangeable；　and　consequently　legitimate　and　true　value？Yes。
  Can　every　product　of　man　be　exchanged　for　some　other　product　of　man？Yes；　again。
  How　many　nails　is　a　pair　of　shoes　worth？
  If　we　can　solve　this　appalling　problem；　we　shall　have　the　key　of　the　social　system　for　which　humanity　has　been　searching　for　six　thousand　years。　　In　the　presence　of　this　problem；　the　economist　recoils　confused；　the　peasant　who　can　neither　read　nor　write　replies　without　hesitation：　　〃As　many　as　can　be　made　in　the　same　time；　and　with　the　same　expense。〃
  The　absolute　value　of　a　thing；　then；　is　its　cost　in　time　and　expense。　　How　much　is　a　diamond　worth　which　costs　only　the　labor　of　picking　it　up？Nothing；　it　is　not　a　product　of　man。　　How　much　will　it　be　worth　when　cut　and　mounted？The　time　and　expense　which　it　has　cost　the　laborer。　　Why；　then；　is　it　sold　at　so　high　a　price？Because　men　are　not　free。　　Society　must　regulate　the　exchange　and　distribution　of　the　rarest　things；　as　it　does　that　of　the　most　common　ones；　in　such　a　way　that　each　may　share　in　the　enjoyment　of　them。　　What；　then；　is　that　value　which　is　based　upon　opinion？Delusion；　injustice；　and　robbery。
  By　this　rule；　it　is　easy　to　reconcile　every　body。　　If　the　mean　term；　which　we　are　searching　for；　between　an　infinite　value　and　no　value　at　all　is　expressed　in　the　case　of　every　product；　by　the　amount　of　time　and　expense　which　the　product　cost；　a　poem　which　has　cost　its　author　thirty　years　of　labor　and　an　outlay　of　ten　thousand　francs　in　journeys；　books；　&c。；　must　be　paid　for　by　the　ordinary　wages　received　by　a　laborer　during　thirty　years；　PLUS　ten　thousand　francs　indemnity　for　expense　incurred。　　Suppose　the　whole　amount　to　be　fifty　thousand　francs；　if　the　society　which　gets　the　benefit　of　the　production　include　a　million　of　men；　my　share　of　the　debt　is　five　centimes。
  This　gives　rise　to　a　few　observations。
  1。　The　same　product；　at　different　times　and　in　different　places；　may　cost　more　or　less　of　time　and　outlay；　in　this　view；　it　is　true　that　value　is　a　variable　quantity。　　But　this　variation　is　not　that　of　the　economists；　who　place　in　their　list　of　the　causes　of　the　variation　of　values；　not　only　the　means　of　production；　but　taste；　caprice；　fashion；　and　opinion。　　In　short；　the　true　value　of　a　thing　is　invariable　in　its　algebraic　expression；　although　it　may　vary　in　its　monetary　expression。
  2。　The　price　of　every　product　in　demand　should　be　its　cost　in　time　and　outlayneither　more　nor　less：　every　product　not　in　demand　is　a　loss　to　the　producera　commercial　non…value。
  3。　The　ignorance　of　the　principle　of　evaluation；　and　the　difficulty　under　many　circumstances　of　applying　it；　is　the　source　of　commercial　fraud；　and　one　of　the　most　potent　causes　of　the　inequality　of　fortunes。
  4。　To　reward　certain　industries　and　pay　for　certain　products；　a　society　is　needed　which　corresponds　in　size　with　the　rarity　of　talents；　the　costliness　of　the　products；　and　the　variety　of　the　arts　and　sciences。　　If；　for　example；　a　society　of　fifty　farmers　can　support　a　schoolmaster；　it　requires　one　hundred　for　a　shoemaker；　one　hundred　and　fifty　for　a　blacksmith；　two　hundred　for　a　tailor；　&c。　　If　the　number　of　farmers　rises　to　one　thousand；　ten　thousand；　one　hundred　thousand；　&c。；　as　fast　as　their　number　increases；　that　of　the　functionaries　which　are　earliest　required　must　increase　in　the　same　proportion；　so　that　the　highest　functions　become　possible　only　in　the　most　powerful　societies。＇1＇　　That　is　the　peculiar　feature　of　capacities；　the　character　of　genius；　the　seal　of　its　glory；　cannot　arise　and　develop　itself；　except　in　the　bosom　of　a　great　nation。　　But　this　physiological　condition；　necessary　to　the　existence　of　genius；　adds　nothing　to　its　social　rights：　far　from　that；the　delay　in　its　appearance　proves　that；　in　economical　and　civil　affairs；　the　loftiest　intelligence　must　submit　to　the　equality　of　possessions；　an　equality　which　is　anterior　to　it；　and　of　which　it　constitutes　the　crown。
  ＇1＇　How　many　citizens　are　needed　to　support　a　professor　of　philosophy？Thirty…five　millions。　　How　many　for　an　economist？　Two　billions。　　And　for　a　literary　man；　who　is　neither　a　savant；　nor　an　artist；　nor　a　philosopher；　nor　an　economist；　and　who　writes　newspaper　novels？None。
  This　is　severe　on　our　pride；　but　it　is　an　inexorable　truth。　　And　here　psychology　comes　to　the　aid　of　social　economy；　giving　us　to　understand　that　talent　and　material　recompense　have　no　common　measure；　that；　in　this　respect；　the　condition　of　all　producers　is　equal：　consequently；　that　all　comparison　between　them；　and　all　distinction　in　fortunes；　is　impossible。
  _　_In　fact；　every　work　coming　from　the　hands　of　mancompared　with　the　raw　material　of　which　it　is　composedis　beyond　price。　　In　this　respect；　the　distance　is　as　great　between　a　pair　of　wooden　shoes　and　the　trunk　of　a　walnut…tree；　as　between　a　statue　by　Scopas　and　a　block　of　marble。　　The　genius　of　the　simplest　mechanic　exerts　as　much　influence　over　the　materials　which　he　uses；　as　does　the　mind　of　a　Newton　over　the　inert　spheres　whose　distances；　volumes；　and　revolutions　he　calculates。　　You　ask　for　talent　and　genius　a　corresponding　degree　of　honor　and　reward。　　Fix　for　me　the　value　of　a　wood…cutter's　talent；　and　I　will　fix　that　of　Homer。　　If　any　thing　can　reward　intelligence；　it　is　intelligence　itself。　　That　is　what　happens；　when　various　classes　of　producers　pay　to　each　other　a　reciprocal　tribute　of　admiration　and　praise。　　But　if　they　contemplate　an　exchange　of　products　with　a　view　to　satisfying　mutual　needs；　this　exchange　must　be　effected　in　accordance　with　a　system　of　economy　which　is　indifferent　to　considerations　of　talent　and　genius；　and　whose　laws　are　deduced；　not　from　vague　and　meaningless　admiration；　but　from　a　just　balance　between　DEBIT　and　CREDIT；　in　short；　from　commercial　accounts。
  Now；　that　no　one　may　imagine　that　the　liberty　of　buying　and　selling　is　the　sole　basis　of　the　equality　of　wages；　and　that　society's　sole　protection　against　superiority　of　talent　lies　in　a　certain　force　of　inertia　which　has　nothing　in　common　with　right；　I　shall　proceed　to　explain　why　all　capacities　are　entitled　to　the　same　reward；　and　why　a　corresponding　difference　in　wages　would　be　an　injustice。　　I　shall　prove　that　the　obligation　to　stoop　to　the　social　level　is　inherent　in　talent；　and　on　this　very　superiority　of　genius　I　will　found　the　equality　of　fortunes。　　I　have　just　given　the　negative　argument　in　favor　of　rewarding　all　capacities　alike；　I　will　now　give　the　direct　and　positive　argument。
  Listen；　first；　to　the　economist：　it　is　always　pleasant　to　see　how　he　reasons；　and　how　he　understands　justice。　　Without　him；　moreover；　without　his　amusing　blunders　and　his　wonderful　arguments；　we　should　learn　nothing。　　Equality；　so　odious　to　the　economist；　owes　every　thing　to　political　economy。
  〃When　the　parents　of　a　physician　＇the　text　says　a　lawyer；　which　is　not　so　good　an　example＇　have　expended　on　his　education　forty　thousand　francs；　this　sum　may　be　regarded　as　so　much　capital　invested　in　his　head。　　It　is　therefore　permissible　to　consider　it　as　yielding　an　annual　income　of　four　thousand　francs。　　If　the　physician　earns　thirty　thousand；　there　remains　an　income　of　twenty…six　thousand　francs　due　to　the　personal　talents　given　him　by　Nature。　　This　natural　capital；　then；　if　we　assume　ten　per　cent。　as　the　rate　of　interest；　amounts　to　two　hundred　and　sixty　thousand　francs；　and　the　capital　given　him　by　his　parents；　in　defraying　the　expenses　of　his　education；　to　forty　thousand　francs。　　The　union　of　these　two　kinds　of　capital　constitutes　his　fortune。〃Say：　Complete　Course；　&c。
  Say　divides　the　fortune　of　the　physician　into　two　parts：　one　is　composed　of　the　capital　which　went　to　pay　for　his　education；　the　other　represents　his　personal　talents。　　This　division　is　just；　it　is　in　conformity　with　the　nature　of　things；　it　is　universally　admitted；　it　serves　as　the　major　premise　of　that　grand　argument　which　establishes　the　inequality　of　capacities。　　I　accept　this　premise　without　qualification；　let　us　look　at　the　consequences。
  1。　Say　CREDITS　the　physician　with　forty　thousand　francs；the　cost　of　his　education。　　This　amount　should　be　entered　upon　the　DEBIT　side　of　the　account。　　For；　although　this　expense　was　incurred　for　him；　it　was　not　incurred　by　him。　　Then；　instead　of　appropriating　these　forty　thousand　francs；　the　physician　should　add　them　to　the　price　of　his　product；　and　repay　them　to　those　who　are　entitled　to　them。　　Notice；　further；　that　Say　speaks　of　INCOME　instead　of　REIMBURSEMENT；　reasoning　on　the　false　principle　of　the　productivity　of　capital。　　The　expense　of　educating　a　talent　is　a　debt　contracted　by　this　talent。　　From　the　very　fact　of　its　existence；　it　becomes　a　debtor　to　an　amount　equal　to　the　cost　of　its　production。　　This　is　so　true　and　simple　that；　if　the　education　of　some　one　child　in　a　family　has　cost　double　or　triple　that　of　its　brothers；　the　latter　are　entitled　to　a　proportional　amount　of　the　property　previous　to　its　division。　　There　is　no　difficulty　about　this　in　the　case　of　guardians