ged　with　the　spoils　of　the　universe；　is　kept　alive　by　victory　and　government；　her　luxury　and　her　pleasures　are　the　price　of　her　conquests：　she　can　neither　abdicate　nor　dispossess　herself。〃　　Thus　Rome　had　the　facts　and　the　law　on　her　side。　　Her　pretensions　were　justified　by　universal　custom　and　the　law　of　nations。　　Her　institutions　were　based　upon　idolatry　in　religion；　slavery　in　the　State；　and　epicurism　in　private　life；　to　touch　those　was　to　shake　society　to　its　foundations；　and；　to　use　our　modern　expression；　to　open　the　abyss　of　revolutions。　　So　the　idea　occurred　to　no　one；　and　yet　humanity　was　dying　in　blood　and　luxury。
  All　at　once　a　man　appeared；　calling　himself　The　Word　of　God。　　It　is　not　known　to　this　day　who　he　was；　whence　he　came；　nor　what　suggested　to　him　his　ideas。　　He　went　about　proclaiming　everywhere　that　the　end　of　the　existing　society　was　at　hand；　that　the　world　was　about　to　experience　a　new　birth；　that　the　priests　were　vipers；　the　lawyers　ignoramuses；　and　the　philosophers　hypocrites　and　liars；　that　master　and　slave　were　equals；　that　usury　and　every　thing　akin　to　it　was　robbery；　that　proprietors　and　idlers　would　one　day　burn；　while　the　poor　and　pure　in　heart　would　find　a　haven　of　peace。
  This　manThe　Word　of　Godwas　denounced　and　arrested　as　a　public　enemy　by　the　priests　and　the　lawyers；　who　well　understood　how　to　induce　the　people　to　demand　his　death。　　But　this　judicial　murder；　though　it　put　the　finishing　stroke　to　their　crimes；　did　not　destroy　the　doctrinal　seeds　which　The　Word　of　God　had　sown。　　After　his　death；　his　original　disciples　travelled　about　in　all　directions；　preaching　what　they　called　the　GOOD　NEWS；　creating　in　their　turn　millions　of　missionaries；　and；　when　their　task　seemed　to　be　accomplished；　dying　by　the　sword　of　Roman　justice。　　This　persistent　agitation；　the　war　of　the　executioners　and　martyrs；　lasted　nearly　three　centuries；　ending　in　the　conversion　of　the　world。　　Idolatry　was　destroyed；　slavery　abolished；　dissolution　made　room　for　a　more　austere　morality；　and　the　contempt　for　wealth　was　sometimes　pushed　almost　to　privation。
  Society　was　saved　by　the　negation　of　its　own　principles；　by　a　revolution　in　its　religion；　and　by　violation　of　its　most　sacred　rights。　　In　this　revolution；　the　idea　of　justice　spread　to　an　extent　that　had　not　before　been　dreamed　of；　never　to　return　to　its　original　limits。　　Heretofore　justice　had　existed　only　for　the　masters；＇1＇　it　then　commenced　to　exist　for　the　slaves。
  ＇1＇　Religion；　laws；　marriage；　were　the　privileges　of　freemen；　and；　in　the　beginning；　of　nobles　only。　　Dii　majorum　gentium　gods　of　the　patrician　families；　jus　gentiumright　of　nations；　that　is；　of　families　or　nobles。　　The　slave　and　the　plebeian　had　no　families；　their　children　were　treated　as　the　offspring　of　animals。　　BEASTS　they　were　born；　BEASTS　they　must　live。
  Nevertheless；　the　new　religion　at　that　time　had　borne　by　no　means　all　its　fruits。　　There　was　a　perceptible　improvement　of　the　public　morals；　and　a　partial　release　from　oppression；　but；　other　than　that；　the　SEEDS　SOWN　BY　THE　SON　OF　MAN；　having　fallen　into　idolatrous　hearts；　had　produced　nothing　save　innumerable　discords　and　a　quasi…poetical　mythology。　　Instead　of　developing　into　their　practical　consequences　the　principles　of　morality　and　government　taught　by　The　Word　of　God；　his　followers　busied　themselves　in　speculations　as　to　his　birth；　his　origin；　his　person；　and　his　actions；　they　discussed　his　parables；　and　from　the　conflict　of　the　most　extravagant　opinions　upon　unanswerable　questions　and　texts　which　no　one　understood；　was　born　THEOLOGY；which　may　be　defined　as　the　SCIENCE　OF　THE　INFINITELY　ABSURD。
  The　truth　of　CHRISTIANITY　did　not　survive　the　age　of　the　apostles；　the　GOSPEL；　commented　upon　and　symbolized　by　the　Greeks　and　Latins；　loaded　with　pagan　fables；　became　literally　a　mass　of　contradictions；　and　to　this　day　the　reign　of　the　INFALLIBLE　CHURCH　has　been　a　long　era　of　darkness。　　It　is　said　that　the　GATES　OF　HELL　will　not　always　prevail；　that　THE　WORD　OF　GOD　will　return；　and　that　one　day　men　will　know　truth　and　justice；　but　that　will　be　the　death　of　Greek　and　Roman　Catholicism；　just　as　in　the　light　of　science　disappeared　the　caprices　of　opinion。
  The　monsters　which　the　successors　of　the　apostles　were　bent　on　destroying；　frightened　for　a　moment；　reappeared　gradually；　thanks　to　the　crazy　fanaticism；　and　sometimes　the　deliberate　connivance；　of　priests　and　theologians。　　The　history　of　the　enfranchisement　of　the　French　communes　offers　constantly　the　spectacle　of　the　ideas　of　justice　and　liberty　spreading　among　the　people；　in　spite　of　the　combined　efforts　of　kings；　nobles；　and　clergy。　　In　the　year　1789　of　the　Christian　era；　the　French　nation；　divided　by　caste；　poor　and　oppressed；　struggled　in　the　triple　net　of　royal　absolutism；　the　tyranny　of　nobles　and　parliaments；　and　priestly　intolerance。　　There　was　the　right　of　the　king　and　the　right　of　the　priest；　the　right　of　the　patrician　and　the　right　of　the　plebeian；　there　were　the　privileges　of　birth；　province；　communes；　corporations；　and　trades；　and；　at　the　bottom　of　all；　violence；　immorality；　and　misery。　　For　some　time　they　talked　of　reformation；　those　who　apparently　desired　it　most　favoring　it　only　for　their　own　profit；　and　the　people　who　were　to　be　the　gainers　expecting　little　and　saying　nothing。　　For　a　long　time　these　poor　people；　either　from　distrust；　incredulity；　or　despair；　hesitated　to　ask　for　their　rights：　it　is　said　that　the　habit　of　serving　had　taken　the　courage　away　from　those　old　communes；　which　in　the　middle　ages　were　so　bold。
  Finally　a　book　appeared；　summing　up　the　whole　matter　in　these　two　propositions：　　WHAT　IS　THE　THIRD　ESTATE？NOTHING。　　WHAT　OUGHT　IT　TO　BE？EVERY　THING。　　Some　one　added　by　way　of　comment：　　WHAT　IS　THE　KING？THE　SERVANT　OF　THE　PEOPLE。
  This　was　a　sudden　revelation：　the　veil　was　torn　aside；　a　thick　bandage　fell　from　all　eyes。　　The　people　commenced　to　reason　thus：
  If　the　king　is　our　servant；　he　ought　to　report　to　us；
  If　he　ought　to　report　to　us；　he　is　subject　to　control；
  If　he　can　be　controlled；　he　is　responsible；
  If　he　is　responsible；　he　is　punishable；
  If　he　is　punishable；　he　ought　to　be　punished　according　to　his　merits；
  If　he　ought　to　be　punished　according　to　his　merits；　he　can　be　punished　with　death。
  Five　years　after　the　publication　of　the　brochure　of　Sieyes；　the　third　estate　was　every　thing；　the　king；　the　nobility；　the　clergy；　were　no　more。　　In　1793；　the　nation；　without　stopping　at　the　constitutional　fiction　of　the　inviolability　of　the　sovereign；　conducted　Louis　XVI。　to　the　scaffold；　in　1830；　it　accompanied　Charles　X。　to　Cherbourg。　　In　each　case；　it　may　have　erred；　in　fact；　in　its　judgment　of　the　offence；　but；　in　right；　the　logic　which　led　to　its　action　was　irreproachable。　　The　people；　in　punishing　their　sovereign；　did　precisely　that　which　the　government　of　July　was　so　severely　censured　for　failing　to　do　when　it　refused　to　execute　Louis　Bonaparte　after　the　affair　of　Strasburg：　they　struck　the　true　culprit。　　It　was　an　application　of　the　common　law；　a　solemn　decree　of　justice　enforcing　the　penal　laws。＇1＇
  ＇1＇　If　the　chief　of　the　executive　power　is　responsible；　so　must　the　deputies　be　also。　　It　is　astonishing　that　this　idea　has　never　occurred　to　any　one；　it　might　be　made　the　subject　of　an　interesting　essay。　　But　I　declare　that　I　would　not；　for　all　the　world；　maintain　it；　the　people　are　yet　much　too　logical　for　me　to　furnish　them　with　arguments。
  The　spirit　which　gave　rise　to　the　movement　of　'89　was　a　spirit　of　negation；　that；　of　itself；　proves　that　the　order　of　things　which　was　substituted　for　the　old　system　was　not　methodical　or　well…　considered；　that；　born　of　anger　and　hatred；　it　could　not　have　the　effect　of　a　science　based　on　observation　and　study；　that　its　foundations；　in　a　word；　were　not　derived　from　a　profound　knowledge　of　the　laws　of　Nature　and　society。　　Thus　the　people　found　that　the　republic；　among　the　so…called　new　institutions；　was　acting　on　the　very　principles　against　which　they　had　fought；　and　was　swayed　by　all　the　prejudices　which　they　had　intended　to　destroy。　　We　congratulate　ourselves；　with　inconsiderate　enthusiasm；　on　the　glorious　French　Revolution；　the　regeneration　of　1789；　the　great　changes　that　have　been　effected；　and　the　reversion　of　institutions：　a　delusion；　a　delusion！
  When　our　ideas　on　any　subject；　material；　intellectual；　or　social；　undergo　a　thorough　change　in　consequence　of　new　observations；　I　call　that　movement　of　the　mind　REVOLUTION。　　If　the　ideas　are　simply　extended　or　modified；　there　is　only　PROGRESS。　　Thus　the　system　of　Ptolemy　was　a　step　in　astronomical　progress；　that　of　Copernicus　was　a　revolution。　　So；　in　1789；　there　was　struggle　and　progress；　revolution　there　was　none。　　An　examination　of　the　reforms　which　were　attempted　proves　this。
  The　nation；　so　long　a　victim　of　monarchical　selfishness；　thought　to　deliver　itself　for　ever　by　declaring　that　it　alone　was　sovereign。　　But　what　was　monarchy？　　The　sovereignty　of　one　man。　　What　is　democracy？　　The　sovereignty　of　the　nation；　or；　rather；　of　the　national　majority。　　But　it　is；　in　both　cases；　the　sovereignty　of　man　instead　of　the　sovereignty　of　the　law；　the　sovereignty　of　the　will　instead　of　the　sovereignty　of　the　reason；　in　one　word；　the　passions　instead　of