to　make　it　a　rule　of　conduct；　and　if　they　had　been　wise　enough　to　respect　the　liberty　of　thought。　　But　having　made　God　in　his　own　image；　man　wished　to　appropriate　him　still　farther；　not　satisfied　with　disfiguring　the　Almighty；　he　treated　him　as　his　patrimony；　his　goods；　his　possessions。　　God；　pictured　in　monstrous　forms；　became　throughout　the　world　the　property　of　man　and　of　the　State。　　Such　was　the　origin　of　the　corruption　of　morals　by　religion；　and　the　source　of　pious　feuds　and　holy　wars。　　Thank　Heaven！　we　have　learned　to　allow　every　one　his　own　beliefs；　we　seek　for　moral　laws　outside　the　pale　of　religion。　　Instead　of　legislating　as　to　the　nature　and　attributes　of　God；　the　dogmas　of　theology；　and　the　destiny　of　our　souls；　we　wisely　wait　for　science　to　tell　us　what　to　reject　and　what　to　accept。　　God；　soul；　religion；eternal　objects　of　our　unwearied　thought　and　our　most　fatal　aberrations；　terrible　problems　whose　solution；　for　ever　attempted；　for　ever　remains　unaccomplished；concerning　all　these　questions　we　may　still　be　mistaken；　but　at　least　our　error　is　harmless。　　With　liberty　in　religion；　and　the　separation　of　the　spiritual　from　the　temporal　power；　the　influence　of　religious　ideas　upon　the　progress　of　society　is　purely　negative；　no　law；　no　political　or　civil　institution　being　founded　on　religion。　　Neglect　of　duties　imposed　by　religion　may　increase　the　general　corruption；　but　it　is　not　the　primary　cause；　it　is　only　an　auxiliary　or　result。　　It　is　universally　admitted；　and　especially　in　the　matter　which　now　engages　our　attention；　that　the　cause　of　the　inequality　of　conditions　among　menof　pauperism；　of　universal　misery；　and　of　governmental　embarrassmentscan　no　longer　be　traced　to　religion：　we　must　go　farther　back；　and　dig　still　deeper。
  But　what　is　there　in　man　older　and　deeper　than　the　religious　sentiment？
  There　is　man　himself；　that　is；　volition　and　conscience；　free…will　and　law；　eternally　antagonistic。　　Man　is　at　war　with　himself：　why？
  〃Man；〃　say　the　theologians；　〃transgressed　in　the　beginning；　our　race　is　guilty　of　an　ancient　offence。　　For　this　transgression　humanity　has　fallen；　error　and　ignorance　have　become　its　sustenance。　　Read　history；　you　will　find　universal　proof　of　this　necessity　for　evil　in　the　permanent　misery　of　nations。　　Man　suffers　and　always　will　suffer；　his　disease　is　hereditary　and　constitutional。　　Use　palliatives；　employ　emollients；　there　is　no　remedy。〃
  Nor　is　this　argument　peculiar　to　the　theologians；　we　find　it　expressed　in　equivalent　language　in　the　philosophical　writings　of　the　materialists；　believers　in　infinite　perfectibility。　　Destutt　de　Tracy　teaches　formally　that　poverty；　crime；　and　war　are　the　inevitable　conditions　of　our　social　state；　necessary　evils；　against　which　it　would　be　folly　to　revolt。　　So；　call　it　NECESSITY　OF　EVIL　or　ORIGINAL　DEPRAVITY；　it　is　at　bottom　the　same　philosophy。
  〃The　first　man　transgressed。〃　　If　the　votaries　of　the　Bible　interpreted　it　faithfully；　they　would　say：　MAN　ORIGINALLY　TRANSGRESSED；　that　is；　made　a　mistake；　for　TO　TRANSGRESS；　TO　FAIL；　TO　MAKE　A　MISTAKE；　all　mean　the　same　thing。
  〃The　consequences　of　Adam's　transgression　are　inherited　by　the　race；　the　first　is　ignorance。〃　　Truly；　the　race；　like　the　individual；　is　born　ignorant；　but；　in　regard　to　a　multitude　of　questions；　even　in　the　moral　and　political　spheres；　this　ignorance　of　the　race　has　been　dispelled：　who　says　that　it　will　not　depart　altogether？　　Mankind　makes　continual　progress　toward　truth；　and　light　ever　triumphs　over　darkness。　　Our　disease　is　not；　then；　absolutely　incurable；　and　the　theory　of　the　theologians　is　worse　than　inadequate；　it　is　ridiculous；　since　it　is　reducible　to　this　tautology：　　〃Man　errs；　because　he　errs。〃　　While　the　true　statement　is　this：　　〃Man　errs；　because　he　learns。〃
  Now；　if　man　arrives　at　a　knowledge　of　all　that　he　needs　to　know；　it　is　reasonable　to　believe　that；　ceasing　to　err；　he　will　cease　to　suffer。
  But　if　we　question　the　doctors　as　to　this　law；　said　to　be　engraved　upon　the　heart　of　man；　we　shall　immediately　see　that　they　dispute　about　a　matter　of　which　they　know　nothing；　that；　concerning　the　most　important　questions；　there　are　almost　as　many　opinions　as　authors；　that　we　find　no　two　agreeing　as　to　the　best　form　of　government；　the　principle　of　authority；　and　the　nature　of　right；　that　all　sail　hap…hazard　upon　a　shoreless　and　bottomless　sea；　abandoned　to　the　guidance　of　their　private　opinions　which　they　modestly　take　to　be　right　reason。　　And；　in　view　of　this　medley　of　contradictory　opinions；　we　say：　　〃The　object　of　our　investigations　is　the　law；　the　determination　of　the　social　principle。　　Now；　the　politicians；　that　is；　the　social　scientists；　do　not　understand　each　other；　then　the　error　lies　in　themselves；　and；　as　every　error　has　a　reality　for　its　object；　we　must　look　in　their　books　to　find　the　truth　which　they　have　unconsciously　deposited　there。〃
  Now；　of　what　do　the　lawyers　and　the　publicists　treat？　　Of　jUSTICE；　EQUITY；　LIBERTY；　NATURAL　LAW；　CIVIL　LAWS；　&c。　　But　what　is　justice？　　What　is　its　principle；　its　character；　its　formula？　　To　this　question　our　doctors　evidently　have　no　reply；　for　otherwise　their　science；　starting　with　a　principle　clear　and　well　defined；　would　quit　the　region　of　probabilities；　and　all　disputes　would　end。
  What　is　justice？　　The　theologians　answer：　　〃All　justice　comes　from　God。〃　　That　is　true；　but　we　know　no　more　than　before。
  The　philosophers　ought　to　be　better　informed：　they　have　argued　so　much　about　justice　and　injustice！　　Unhappily；　an　examination　proves　that　their　knowledge　amounts　to　nothing；　and　that　with　themas　with　the　savages　whose　every　prayer　to　the　sun　is　simply　_O！　　O！_it　is　a　cry　of　admiration；　love；　and　enthusiasm；　but　who　does　not　know　that　the　sun　attaches　little　meaning　to　the　interjection　O！　　That　is　exactly　our　position　toward　the　philosophers　in　regard　to　justice。　　Justice；　they　say；　is　a　DAUGHTER　OF　HEAVEN；　A　LIGHT　WHICH　ILLUMINES　EVERY　MAN　THAT　COMES　INTO　THE　WORLD；　THE　MOST　BEAUTIFUL　PREROGATIVE　OF　OUR　NATURE；　THAT　WHICH　DISTINGUISHES　US　FROM　THE　BEASTS　AND　LIKENS　US　TO　GODand　a　thousand　other　similar　things。　　What；　I　ask；　does　this　pious　litany　amount　to？　　To　the　prayer　of　the　savages：　　O！
  All　the　most　reasonable　teachings　of　human　wisdom　concerning　justice　are　summed　up　in　that　famous　adage：　　DO　UNTO　OTHERS　THAT　WHICH　YOU　WOULD　THAT　OTHERS　SHOULD　DO　UNTO　YOU；　DO　NOT　UNTO　OTHERS　THAT　WHICH　YOU　WOULD　NOT　THAT　OTHERS　SHOULD　DO　UNTO　YOU。　　But　this　rule　of　moral　practice　is　unscientific：　what　have　I　a　right　to　wish　that　others　should　do　or　not　do　to　me？　　It　is　of　no　use　to　tell　me　that　my　duty　is　equal　to　my　right；　unless　I　am　told　at　the　same　time　what　my　right　is。
  Let　us　try　to　arrive　at　something　more　precise　and　positive。
  Justice　is　the　central　star　which　governs　societies；　the　pole　around　which　the　political　world　revolves；　the　principle　and　the　regulator　of　all　transactions。　　Nothing　takes　place　between　men　save　in　the　name　of　RIGHT；　nothing　without　the　invocation　of　justice。　　Justice　is　not　the　work　of　the　law：　on　the　contrary；　the　law　is　only　a　declaration　and　application　of　JUSTICE　in　all　circumstances　where　men　are　liable　to　come　in　contact。　　If；　then；　the　idea　that　we　form　of　justice　and　right　were　ill…defined；　if　it　were　imperfect　or　even　false；　it　is　clear　that　all　our　legislative　applications　would　be　wrong；　our　institutions　vicious；　our　politics　erroneous：　consequently　there　would　be　disorder　and　social　chaos。
  This　hypothesis　of　the　perversion　of　justice　in　our　minds；　and；　as　a　necessary　result；　in　our　acts；　becomes　a　demonstrated　fact　when　it　is　shown　that　the　opinions　of　men　have　not　borne　a　constant　relation　to　the　notion　of　justice　and　its　applications；　that　at　different　periods　they　have　undergone　modifications：　in　a　word；　that　there　has　been　progress　in　ideas。　　Now；　that　is　what　history　proves　by　the　most　overwhelming　testimony。
  Eighteen　Hundred　years　ago；　the　world；　under　the　rule　of　the　Caesars；　exhausted　itself　in　slavery；　superstition；　and　voluptuousness。　　The　peopleintoxicated　and；　as　it　were；　stupefied　by　their　long…continued　orgieshad　lost　the　very　notion　of　right　and　duty：　war　and　dissipation　by　turns　swept　them　away；　usury　and　the　labor　of　machines　（that　is　of　slaves）；　by　depriving　them　of　the　means　of　subsistence；　hindered　them　from　continuing　the　species。　　Barbarism　sprang　up　again；　in　a　hideous　form；　from　this　mass　of　corruption；　and　spread　like　a　devouring　leprosy　over　the　depopulated　provinces。　　The　wise　foresaw　the　downfall　of　the　empire；　but　could　devise　no　remedy。　　What　could　they　think　indeed？　　To　save　this　old　society　it　would　have　been　necessary　to　change　the　objects　of　public　esteem　and　veneration；　and　to　abolish　the　rights　affirmed　by　a　justice　purely　secular；　they　said：　　〃Rome　has　conquered　through　her　politics　and　her　gods；　any　change　in　theology　and　public　opinion　would　be　folly　and　sacrilege。　　Rome；　merciful　toward　conquered　nations；　though　binding　them　in　chains；　spared　their　lives；　slaves　are　the　most　fertile　source　of　her　wealth；　freedom　of　the　nations　would　be　the　negation　of　her　rights　and　the　ruin　of　her　finances。　　Rome；　in　fact；　enveloped　in　the　pleasures　and　gorged　with　the　spoils　of　the　universe；　is　kept　alive　by　victory　and　government；　her　luxury　and　her　ple