stone　to　the　edifice；　and；　his　task　accomplished；　disappears。　　Eternity　precedes　us；　eternity　follows　us：　between　two　infinites；　of　what　account　is　one　poor　mortal　that　the　century　should　inquire　about　him？
  ＇1＇　In　Greek；　｛GREEK　e　ncg　　　　｝　examiner；　a　philosopher　whose　business　is　to　seek　the　truth。
  Disregard　then；　reader；　my　title　and　my　character；　and　attend　only　to　my　arguments。　　It　is　in　accordance　with　universal　consent　that　I　undertake　to　correct　universal　error；　from　the　OPINION　of　the　human　race　I　appeal　to　its　FAITH。　　Have　the　courage　to　follow　me；　and；　if　your　will　is　untrammelled；　if　your　conscience　is　free；　if　your　mind　can　unite　two　propositions　and　deduce　a　third　therefrom；　my　ideas　will　inevitably　become　yours。　　In　beginning　by　giving　you　my　last　word；　it　was　my　purpose　to　warn　you；　not　to　defy　you；　for　I　am　certain　that；　if　you　read　me；　you　will　be　compelled　to　assent。　　The　things　of　which　I　am　to　speak　are　so　simple　and　clear　that　you　will　be　astonished　at　not　having　perceived　them　before；　and　you　will　say：　　〃I　have　neglected　to　think。〃　　Others　offer　you　the　spectacle　of　genius　wresting　Nature's　secrets　from　her；　and　unfolding　before　you　her　sublime　messages；　you　will　find　here　only　a　series　of　experiments　upon　JUSTICE　and　RIGHT　a　sort　of　verification　of　the　weights　and　measures　of　your　conscience。　　The　operations　shall　be　conducted　under　your　very　eyes；　and　you　shall　weigh　the　result。
  Nevertheless；　I　build　no　system。　　I　ask　an　end　to　privilege；　the　abolition　of　slavery；　equality　of　rights；　and　the　reign　of　law。　　Justice；　nothing　else；　that　is　the　alpha　and　omega　of　my　argument：　to　others　I　leave　the　business　of　governing　the　world。
  One　day　I　asked　myself：　　Why　is　there　so　much　sorrow　and　misery　in　society？　　Must　man　always　be　wretched？　　And　not　satisfied　with　the　explanations　given　by　the　reformers；these　attributing　the　general　distress　to　governmental　cowardice　and　incapacity；　those　to　conspirators　and　emeutes；　still　others　to　ignorance　and　general　corruption；and　weary　of　the　interminable　quarrels　of　the　tribune　and　the　press；　I　sought　to　fathom　the　matter　myself。　　I　have　consulted　the　masters　of　science；　I　have　read　a　hundred　volumes　of　philosophy；　law；　political　economy；　and　history：　would　to　God　that　I　had　lived　in　a　century　in　which　so　much　reading　had　been　useless！　　I　have　made　every　effort　to　obtain　exact　information；　comparing　doctrines；　replying　to　objections；　continually　constructing　equations　and　reductions　from　arguments；　and　weighing　thousands　of　syllogisms　in　the　scales　of　the　most　rigorous　logic。　　In　this　laborious　work；　I　have　collected　many　interesting　facts　which　I　shall　share　with　my　friends　and　the　public　as　soon　as　I　have　leisure。　　But　I　must　say　that　I　recognized　at　once　that　we　had　never　understood　the　meaning　of　these　words；　so　common　and　yet　so　sacred：　　JUSTICE；　EQUITY；　LIBERTY；　that　concerning　each　of　these　principles　our　ideas　have　been　utterly　obscure；　and；　in　fact；　that　this　ignorance　was　the　sole　cause；　both　of　the　poverty　that　devours　us；　and　of　all　the　calamities　that　have　ever　afflicted　the　human　race。
  My　mind　was　frightened　by　this　strange　result：　　I　doubted　my　reason。　　What！　said　I；　that　which　eye　has　not　seen；　nor　ear　heard；　nor　insight　penetrated；　you　have　discovered！　　Wretch；　mistake　not　the　visions　of　your　diseased　brain　for　the　truths　of　science！　　Do　you　not　know　（great　philosophers　have　said　so）　that　in　points　of　practical　morality　universal　error　is　a　contradiction？
  I　resolved　then　to　test　my　arguments；　and　in　entering　upon　this　new　labor　I　sought　an　answer　to　the　following　questions：　　Is　it　possible　that　humanity　can　have　been　so　long　and　so　universally　mistaken　in　the　application　of　moral　principles？　　How　and　why　could　it　be　mistaken？　　How　can　its　error；　being　universal；　be　capable　of　correction？
  These　questions；　on　the　solution　of　which　depended　the　certainty　of　my　conclusions；　offered　no　lengthy　resistance　to　analysis。　　It　will　be　seen；　in　chapter　V。　of　this　work；　that　in　morals；　as　in　all　other　branches　of　knowledge；　the　gravest　errors　are　the　dogmas　of　science；　that；　even　in　works　of　justice；　to　be　mistaken　is　a　privilege　which　ennobles　man；　and　that　whatever　philosophical　merit　may　attach　to　me　is　infinitely　small。　　To　name　a　thing　is　easy：　the　difficulty　is　to　discern　it　before　its　appearance。　　In　giving　expression　to　the　last　stage　of　an　idea；　an　idea　which　permeates　all　minds；　which　to…morrow　will　be　proclaimed　by　another　if　I　fail　to　announce　it　to…day；I　can　claim　no　merit　save　that　of　priority　of　utterance。　　Do　we　eulogize　the　man　who　first　perceives　the　dawn？
  Yes：　all　men　believe　and　repeat　that　equality　of　conditions　is　identical　with　equality　of　rights；　that　PROPERTY　and　ROBBERY　are　synonymous　terms；　that　every　social　advantage　accorded；　or　rather　usurped；　in　the　name　of　superior　talent　or　service；　is　iniquity　and　extortion。　　All　men　in　their　hearts；　I　say；　bear　witness　to　these　truths；　they　need　only　to　be　made　to　understand　it。
  Before　entering　directly　upon　the　question　before　me；　I　must　say　a　word　of　the　road　that　I　shall　traverse。　　When　Pascal　approached　a　geometrical　problem；　he　invented　a　method　of　solution；　to　solve　a　problem　in　philosophy　a　method　is　equally　necessary。　　Well；　by　how　much　do　the　problems　of　which　philosophy　treats　surpass　in　the　gravity　of　their　results　those　discussed　by　geometry！　　How　much　more　imperatively；　then；　do　they　demand　for　their　solution　a　profound　and　rigorous　analysis！
  It　is　a　fact　placed　for　ever　beyond　doubt；　say　the　modern　psychologists；　that　every　perception　received　by　the　mind　is　determined　by　certain　general　laws　which　govern　the　mind；　is　moulded；　so　to　speak；　in　certain　types　pre…existing　in　our　understanding；　and　which　constitutes　its　original　condition。　　Hence；　say　they；　if　the　mind　has　no　innate　IDEAS；　it　has　at　least　innate　FORMS。　　Thus；　for　example；　every　phenomenon　is　of　necessity　conceived　by　us　as　happening　in　TIME　and　SPACE；　that　compels　us　to　infer　a　CAUSE　of　its　occurrence；　every　thing　which　exists　implies　the　ideas　of　SUBSTANCE；　MODE；　RELATION；　NUMBER；　&C。；　in　a　word；　we　form　no　idea　which　is　not　related　to　some　one　of　the　general　principles　of　reason；　independent　of　which　nothing　exists。
  These　axioms　of　the　understanding；　add　the　psychologists；　these　fundamental　types；　by　which　all　our　judgments　and　ideas　are　inevitably　shaped；　and　which　our　sensations　serve　only　to　illuminate；　are　known　in　the　schools　as　CATEGORIES。　　Their　primordial　existence　in　the　mind　is　to…day　demonstrated；　they　need　only　to　be　systematized　and　catalogued。　　Aristotle　recognized　ten；　Kant　increased　the　number　to　fifteen；　M。　Cousin　has　reduced　it　to　three；　to　two；　to　one；　and　the　indisputable　glory　of　this　professor　will　be　due　to　the　fact　that；　if　he　has　not　discovered　the　true　theory　of　categories；　he　has；　at　least；　seen　more　clearly　than　any　one　else　the　vast　importance　of　this　question；the　greatest　and　perhaps　the　only　one　with　which　metaphysics　has　to　deal。
  I　confess　that　I　disbelieve　in　the　innateness；　not　only　of　IDEAS；　but　also　of　FORMS　or　LAWS　of　our　understanding；　and　I　hold　the　metaphysics　of　Reid　and　Kant　to　be　still　farther　removed　from　the　truth　than　that　of　Aristotle。　　However；　as　I　do　not　wish　to　enter　here　into　a　discussion　of　the　mind；　a　task　which　would　demand　much　labor　and　be　of　no　interest　to　the　public；　I　shall　admit　the　hypothesis　that　our　most　general　and　most　necessary　ideassuch　as　time；　space；　substance；　and　cause　exist　originally　in　the　mind；　or；　at　least；　are　derived　immediately　from　its　constitution。
  But　it　is　a　psychological　fact　none　the　less　true；　and　one　to　which　the　philosophers　have　paid　too　little　attention；　that　habit；　like　a　second　nature；　has　the　power　of　fixing　in　the　mind　new　categorical　forms　derived　from　the　appearances　which　impress　us；　and　by　them　usually　stripped　of　objective　reality；　but　whose　influence　over　our　judgments　is　no　less　predetermining　than　that　of　the　original　categories。　　Hence　we　reason　by　the　ETERNAL　and　ABSOLUTE　laws　of　our　mind；　and　at　the　same　time　by　the　secondary　rules；　ordinarily　faulty；　which　are　suggested　to　us　by　imperfect　observation。　　This　is　the　most　fecund　source　of　false　prejudices；　and　the　permanent　and　often　invincible　cause　of　a　multitude　of　errors。　　The　bias　resulting　from　these　prejudices　is　so　strong　that　often；　even　when　we　are　fighting　against　a　principle　which　our　mind　thinks　false；　which　is　repugnant　to　our　reason；　and　which　our　conscience　disapproves；　we　defend　it　without　knowing　it；　we　reason　in　accordance　with　it；　and　we　obey　it　while　attacking　it。　　Enclosed　within　a　circle；　our　mind　revolves　about　itself；　until　a　new　observation；　creating　within　us　new　ideas；　brings　to　view　an　external　principle　which　delivers　us　from　the　phantom　by　which　our　imagination　is　possessed。
  Thus；　we　know　to…day　that；　by　the　laws　of　a　universal　magnetism　whose　cause　is　still　unknown；　two　bodies　（no　obstacle　intervening）　tend　to　unite　by　an　accelerated　impelling　force　which　we　call　GRAVITATION。　　It　is　gravitation　which　causes　unsupported　bodies　to　fall　to　the　ground；　which　gives　them　weight；　and　which　fastens　us　to　the　earth　on　which　we　live。　　Ignorance　of　this　cause　was　the　sole　obstacle　which　prevented　the　ancients　from　b