adequate　grounds；　conscientiously　to　stamp　the　misrepresentation　as
  morally　culpable；　and　still　less　could　law　presume　to　interfere　with
  this　kind　of　controversial　misconduct。　With　regard　to　what　is　commonly
  meant　by　intemperate　discussion；　namely　invective；　sarcasm；
  personality；　and　the　like；　the　denunciation　of　these　weapons　would
  deserve　more　sympathy　if　it　were　ever　proposed　to　interdict　them
  equally　to　both　sides；　but　it　is　only　desired　to　restrain　the
  employment　of　them　against　the　prevailing　opinion：　against　the
  unprevailing　they　may　not　only　be　used　without　general　disapproval；
  but　will　be　likely　to　obtain　for　him　who　uses　them　the　praise　of
  honest　zeal　and　righteous　indignation。　Yet　whatever　mischief　arises
  from　their　use　is　greatest　when　they　are　employed　against　the
  comparatively　defenceless；　and　whatever　unfair　advantage　can　be
  derived　by　any　opinion　from　this　mode　of　asserting　it；　accrues
  almost　exclusively　to　received　opinions。　The　worst　offence　of　this
  kind　which　can　be　committed　by　a　polemic　is　to　stigmatise　those　who
  hold　the　contrary　opinion　as　bad　and　immoral　men。　To　calumny　of　this
  sort；　those　who　hold　any　unpopular　opinion　are　peculiarly　exposed；
  because　they　are　in　general　few　and　uninfluential；　and　nobody　but
  themselves　feels　much　interested　in　seeing　justice　done　them；　but　this
  weapon　is；　from　the　nature　of　the　case；　denied　to　those　who　attack　a
  prevailing　opinion：　they　can　neither　use　it　with　safety　to　themselves；
  nor；　if　they　could；　would　it　do　anything　but　recoil　on　their　own
  cause。　In　general；　opinions　contrary　to　those　commonly　received　can
  only　obtain　a　hearing　by　studied　moderation　of　language；　and　the
  most　cautious　avoidance　of　unnecessary　offence；　from　which　they　hardly
  ever　deviate　even　in　a　slight　degree　without　losing　ground：　while
  unmeasured　vituperation　employed　on　the　side　of　the　prevailing　opinion
  really　does　deter　people　from　professing　contrary　opinions；　and　from
  listening　to　those　who　profess　them。
  For　the　interest；　therefore；　of　truth　and　justice；　it　is　far　more
  important　to　restrain　this　employment　of　vituperative　language　than
  the　other；　and；　for　example；　if　it　were　necessary　to　choose；　there
  would　be　much　more　need　to　discourage　offensive　attacks　on
  infidelity　than　on　religion。　It　is；　however；　obvious　that　law　and
  authority　have　no　business　with　restraining　either；　while　opinion
  ought；　in　every　instance；　to　determine　its　verdict　by　the
  circumstances　of　the　individual　case；　condemning　every　one；　on
  whichever　side　of　the　argument　he　places　himself；　in　whose　mode　of
  advocacy　either　want　of　candour；　or　malignity；　bigotry；　or　intolerance
  of　feeling　manifest　themselves；　but　not　inferring　these　vices　from　the
  side　which　a　person　takes；　though　it　be　the　contrary　side　of　the
  question　to　our　own；　and　giving　merited　honour　to　every　one；
  whatever　opinion　he　may　hold；　who　has　calmness　to　see　and　honesty　to
  state　what　his　opponents　and　their　opinions　really　are；　exaggerating
  nothing　to　their　discredit；　keeping　nothing　back　which　tells；　or　can
  be　supposed　to　tell；　in　their　favour。　This　is　the　real　morality　of
  public　discussion：　and　if　often　violated；　I　am　happy　to　think　that
  there　are　many　controversialists　who　to　a　great　extent　observe　it；　and
  a　still　greater　number　who　conscientiously　strive　towards　it。
  Chapter　3。
  Of　Individuality；　as　one　of　the　Elements　of　Well…being。
  SUCH　BEING　the　reasons　which　make　it　imperative　that　human　beings
  should　be　free　to　form　opinions；　and　to　express　their　opinions　without
  reserve；　and　such　the　baneful　consequences　to　the　intellectual；　and
  through　that　to　the　moral　nature　of　man；　unless　this　liberty　is　either
  conceded；　or　asserted　in　spite　of　prohibition；　let　us　next　examine
  whether　the　same　reasons　do　not　require　that　men　should　be　free　to　act
  upon　their　opinions…　to　carry　these　out　in　their　lives；　without
  hindrance；　either　physical　or　moral；　from　their　fellow…men；　so　long　as
  it　is　at　their　own　risk　and　peril。
  This　last　proviso　is　of　course　indispensable。　No　one　pretends　that
  actions　should　be　as　free　as　opinions。　On　the　contrary；　even
  opinions　lose　their　immunity　when　the　circumstances　in　which　they
  are　expressed　are　such　as　to　constitute　their　expression　a　positive
  instigation　to　some　mischievous　act。　An　opinion　that　corn…dealers
  are　starvers　of　the　poor；　or　that　private　property　is　robbery；　ought
  to　be　unmolested　when　simply　circulated　through　the　press；　but　may
  justly　incur　punishment　when　delivered　orally　to　an　excited　mob
  assembled　before　the　house　of　a　corn…dealer；　or　when　handed　about
  among　the　same　mob　in　the　form　of　a　placard。　Acts；　of　whatever　kind；
  which；　without　justifiable　cause；　do　harm　to　others；　may　be；　and　in
  the　more　important　cases　absolutely　require　to　be；　controlled　by　the
  unfavourable　sentiments；　and；　when　needful；　by　the　active　interference
  of　mankind。　The　liberty　of　the　individual　must　be　thus　far　limited；　he
  must　not　make　himself　a　nuisance　to　other　people。　But　if　he　refrains
  from　molesting　others　in　what　concerns　them；　and　merely　acts　according
  to　his　own　inclination　and　judgment　in　things　which　concern　himself；
  the　same　reasons　which　show　that　opinion　should　be　free；　prove　also
  that　he　should　be　allowed；　without　molestation；　to　carry　his
  opinions　into　practice　at　his　own　cost。　That　mankind　are　not
  infallible；　that　their　truths；　for　the　most　part；　are　only
  half…truths；　that　unity　of　opinion；　unless　resulting　from　the
  fullest　and　freest　comparison　of　opposite　opinions；　is　not
  desirable；　and　diversity　not　an　evil；　but　a　good；　until　mankind　are
  much　more　capable　than　at　present　of　recognising　all　sides　of　the
  truth；　are　principles　applicable　to　men's　modes　of　action；　not　less
  than　to　their　opinions。　As　it　is　useful　that　while　mankind　are
  imperfect　there　should　be　different　opinions；　so　it　is　that　there
  should　be　different　experiments　of　living；　that　free　scope　should　be
  given　to　varieties　of　character；　short　of　injury　to　others；　and　that
  the　worth　of　different　modes　of　life　should　be　proved　practically；
  when　any　one　thinks　fit　to　try　them。　It　is　desirable；　in　short；　that
  in　things　which　do　not　primarily　concern　others；　individuality
  should　assert　itself。　Where；　not　the　person's　own　character；　but　the
  traditions　or　customs　of　other　people　are　the　rule　of　conduct；　there
  is　wanting　one　of　the　principal　ingredients　of　human　happiness；　and
  quite　the　chief　ingredient　of　individual　and　social　progress。
  In　maintaining　this　principle；　the　greatest　difficulty　to　be
  encountered　does　not　lie　in　the　appreciation　of　means　towards　an
  acknowledged　end；　but　in　the　indifference　of　persons　in　general　to　the
  end　itself。　If　it　were　felt　that　the　free　development　of　individuality
  is　one　of　the　leading　essentials　of　well…being；　that　it　is　not　only
  a　co…ordinate　element　with　all　that　is　designated　by　the　terms
  civilisation；　instruction；　education；　culture；　but　is　itself　a
  necessary　part　and　condition　of　all　those　things；　there　would　be　no
  danger　that　liberty　should　be　undervalued；　and　the　adjustment　of　the
  boundaries　between　it　and　social　control　would　present　no
  extraordinary　difficulty。　But　the　evil　is；　that　individual　spontaneity
  is　hardly　recognised　by　the　common　modes　of　thinking　as　having　any
  intrinsic　worth；　or　deserving　any　regard　on　its　own　account。　The
  majority；　being　satisfied　with　the　ways　of　mankind　as　they　now　are
  （for　it　is　they　who　make　them　what　they　are）；　cannot　comprehend　why
  those　ways　should　not　be　good　enough　for　everybody；　and　what　is
  more；　spontaneity　forms　no　part　of　the　ideal　of　the　majority　of
  moral　and　social　reformers；　but　is　rather　looked　on　with　jealousy；
  as　a　troublesome　and　perhaps　rebellious　obstruction　to　the　general
  acceptance　of　what　these　reformers；　in　their　own　judgment；　think　would
  be　best　for　mankind。　Few　persons；　out　of　Germany；　even　comprehend
  the　meaning　of　the　doctrine　which　Wilhelm　von　Humboldt；　so　eminent
  both　as　a　savant　and　as　a　politician；　made　the　text　of　a　treatise…
  that　〃the　end　of　man；　or　that　which　is　prescribed　by　the　eternal　or
  immutable　dictates　of　reason；　and　not　suggested　by　vague　and　transient
  desires；　is　the　highest　and　most　harmonious　development　of　his
  powers　to　a　complete　and　consistent　whole〃；　that；　therefore；　the
  object　〃towards　which　every　human　being　must　ceaselessly　direct　his
  efforts；　and　on　which　especially　those　who　design　to　influence　their
  fellow…men　must　ever　keep　their　eyes；　is　the　individuality　of　power
  and　development〃；　that　for　this　there　are　two　requisites；　〃freedom；
  and　variety　of　situations〃；　and　that　from　the　union　of　these　arise
  〃individual　vigour　and　manifold　diversity；〃　which　combine　themselves