reet　the　rising　of　the　sun　of　science。　What　a　contrast　in　their　lives　and　in　their　works！　The　great　Dominican's　long　life　was　an　uninterrupted　triumph　of　fruitful　accomplishmentthe　titanic　task　he　set　himself　was　not　only　completed　but　was　appreciated　to　the　full　by　his　own　generation　a　life　not　only　of　study　and　teaching；　but　of　practical　piety。　As　head　of　the　order　in　Germany　and　Bishop　of　Regensburg；　he　had　wide　ecclesiastical　influence；　and　in　death　he　left　a　memory　equalled　only　by　one　or　two　of　his　century；　and　excelled　only　by　his　great　pupil；　Thomas　Aquinas。　　There　are　many　Alberts　in　history　the　Good；　the　Just；　the　Faithfulbut　there　is　only　one　we　call　〃Magnus〃　and　he　richly　deserved　the　name。　　What　is　his　record？　Why　do　we　hold　his　name　in　reverence　today？
  Albertus　Magnus　was　an　encyclopaedic　student　and　author；　who　took　all　knowledge　for　his　province。　　His　great　work　and　his　great　ambition　was　to　interpret　Aristotle　to　his　generation。　Before　his　day；　the　Stagirite　was　known　only　in　part；　but　he　put　within　the　reach　of　his　contemporaries　the　whole　science　of　Aristotle；　and　imbibed　no　small　part　of　his　spirit。　　He　recognized　the　importance　of　the　study　of　nature；　even　of　testing　it　by　way　of　experiment；　and　in　the　long　years　that　had　elapsed　since　Theophrastus　no　one　else；　except　Dioscorides；　had　made　so　thorough　a　study　of　botany。　His　paraphrases　of　the　natural　history　books　of　Aristotle　were　immensely　popular；　and　served　as　a　basis　for　all　subsequent　studies。　Some　of　his　medical　works　had　an　extraordinary　vogue；　particularly　the　〃De　Secretis　Mulierum〃　and　the　〃De　Virtutibus　Herbarum；〃　but　there　is　some　doubt　as　to　the　authorship　of　the　first　named；　although　Jammy　and　Borgnet　include　it　in　the　collected　editions　of　his　works。　So　fabulous　was　his　learning　that　he　was　suspected　of　magic　and　comes　in　Naude's　list　of　the　wise　men　who　have　unjustly　been　reputed　magicians。　　Ferguson　tells＇22＇　that　〃there　is　in　actual　circulation　at　the　present　time　a　chapbook。　。　。　containing　charms；　receipts；　sympathetical　and　magicalcures　for　man　and　animals；　。　。　。　which　passes　under　the　name　of　Albertus。〃　　But　perhaps　the　greatest　claim　of　Albertus　to　immortality　is　that　he　was　the　teacher　and　inspirer　of　Thomas　Aquinas；　the　man　who　undertook　the　colossal　task　of　fusing　Aristotelian　philosophy　with　Christian　theology；　and　with　such　success　that　the　〃angelic　doctor〃　remains　today　the　supreme　human　authority　of　the　Roman　Catholic　Church。
  ＇22＇　Bibliotheca　Chemica；　1906；　Vol。　I；　p。　15。
  A　man　of　much　greater　interest　to　us　from　the　medical　point　of　view　is　Roger　Bacon　and　for　two　reasons。　More　than　any　other　mediaeval　mind　he　saw　the　need　of　the　study　of　nature　by　a　new　method。　　The　man　who　could　write　such　a　sentence　as　this：　〃Experimental　science　has　three　great　prerogatives　over　other　sciences；　it　verifies　conclusions　by　direct　experiment；　it　discovers　truth　which　they　never　otherwise　would　reach；　it　investigates　the　course　of　nature　and　opens　to　us　a　knowledge　of　the　past　and　of　the　future；〃　is　mentally　of　our　day　and　generation。　　Bacon　was　born　out　of　due　time；　and　his　contemporaries　had　little　sympathy　with　his　philosophy；　and　still　less　with　his　mechanical　schemes　and　inventions。　From　the　days　of　the　Greeks；　no　one　had　had　so　keen　an　appreciation　of　what　experiment　meant　in　the　development　of　human　knowledge；　and　he　was　obsessed　with　the　idea；　so　commonplace　to　us；　that　knowledge　should　have　its　utility　and　its　practical　bearing。　　〃His　chief　merit　is　that　he　was　one　of　the　first　to　point　the　way　to　original　researchas　opposed　to　the　acceptance　of　an　authoritythough　he　himself　still　lacked　the　means　of　pursuing　this　path　consistently。　His　inability　to　satisfy　this　impulse　led　to　a　sort　of　longing；　which　is　expressed　in　the　numerous　passages　in　his　works　where　he　anticipates　man's　greater　mastery　over　nature。〃＇23＇
  ＇23＇　Dannemann：　Die　Naturwissenschaften　in　ihrer　Entwicklung　und　in　ibrem　Zusammenhange；Leipzig；　1910；　Vol。　I；　pp。　278…279。
  Bacon　wrote　a　number　of　medical　treatises；　most　of　which　remain　in　manuscript。　His　treatise　on　the　〃Cure　of　Old　Age　and　the　Preservation　of　Youth〃　was　printed　in　English　in　1683。＇24＇　His　authorities　were　largely　Arabian。　　One　of　his　manuscripts　is　〃On　the　Bad　Practices　of　Physicians。〃　　On　June　10；　1914；　the　eve　of　his　birth；　the　septencentenary　of　Roger　Bacon　will　be　celebrated　by　Oxford；　the　university　of　which　he　is　the　most　distinguished　ornament。　His　unpublished　MSS。　in　the　Bodleian　will　be　issued　by　the　Clarendon　Press　＇1915…1920＇；　and　it　is　hoped　that　his　unpublished　medical　writings　will　be　included。
  ＇24＇　It　may　be　interesting　to　note　the　three　causes　to　which　he　attributes　old　age：　　〃As　the　World　waxeth　old；　Men　grow　old　with　it：　not　by　reason　of　the　Age　of　the　World；　but　because　of　the　great　Increase　of　living　Creatures；　which　infect　the　very　Air；　that　every　way　encompasseth　us；　and　Through　our　Negligence　in　ordering　our　Lives；　and　That　great　Ignorance　of　the　Properties　which　are　in　things　conducing　to　Health；　which　might　help　a　disordered　way　of　Living；　and　might　supply　the　defect　of　due　Government。〃
  What　would　have　been　its　fate　if　the　mind　of　Europe　had　been　ready　for　Roger　Bacon's　ferment；　and　if　men　had　turned　to　the　profitable　studies　of　physics；　astronomy　and　chemistry　instead　of　wasting　centuries　over　the　scholastic　philosophy　and　the　subtleties　of　Duns　Scotus；　Abelard　and　Thomas　Aquinas？　　Who　can　say？　Make　no　mistake　about　the　quality　of　these　mengiants　in　intellect；　who　have　had　their　place　in　the　evolution　of　the　race；　but　from　the　standpoint　of　man　struggling　for　the　mastery　of　this　world　they　are　like　the　members　of　Swift's　famous　college　〃busy　distilling　sunshine　from　cucumbers。〃　I　speak；　of　course；　from　the　position　of　the　natural　man；　who　sees　for　his　fellows　more　hope　from　the　experiments　of　Roger　Bacon　than　from　the　disputations　of　philosophy　on　the　〃Instants；　Familiarities；　Quiddities　and　Relations；〃　which　so　roused　the　scorn　of　Erasmus。
  MEDIAEVAL　MEDICAL　STUDIES
  IT　will　be　of　interest　to　know　what　studies　were　followed　at　a　mediaeval　university。　　At　Oxford；　as　at　most　of　the　continental　universities；　there　were　three　degrees；　those　of　Bachelor；　Licentiate　and　Doctor。　　The　books　read　were　the　〃Tegni〃　of　Galen；　the　〃Aphorisms〃　of　Hippocrates；　the　〃De　Febribus〃　of　Isaac　and　the　〃Antidotarium〃　of　Nicolaus　Salernitanus：　if　a　graduate　in　arts；　six　years'　study　in　all　was　required；　in　other　faculties；　eight。　　One　gets　very　full　information　on　such　matters　from　a　most　interesting　book；　〃Une　Chaire　de　Medecine　au　XVe　Siecle；〃　by　Dr。　Ferrari　（Paris；　1899）。　The　University　of　Pavia　was　founded　in　1361；　and　like　most　of　those　in　Italy　was　largely　frequented　by　foreigners；　who　were　arranged；　as　usual；　according　to　their　nationalities；　but　the　students　do　not　appear　to　have　controlled　the　university　quite　so　much　as　at　Bologna。　　The　documents　of　the　Ferrari　family；　on　which　the　work　is　based；　tell　the　story　of　one　of　its　members；　who　was　professor　at　Pavia　from　1432　to　1472。　One　is　surprised　at　the　range　of　studies　in　certain　directions；　and　still　more　at　the　absence　of　other　subjects。　A　list　is　given　of　the　teachers　in　medicine　for　the　year　1433；　twenty　in　all；　and　there　were　special　lectures　for　the　morning；　afternoon　and　evening。　　The　subjects　are　medicine；　practical　medicine；　physics；　metaphysics；　logic；　astrology；　surgery　and　rhetoric：　very　striking　is　the　omission　of　anatomy；　which　does　not　appear　in　the　list　even　in　1467。　　The　salaries　paid　were　not　large；　so　that　most　of　the　teachers　must　have　been　in　practice：　four　hundred　and　five　hundred　florins　was　the　maximum。
  The　dominance　of　the　Arabians　is　striking。　　In　1467；　special　lectures　were　given　on　the　〃Almansor〃　of　Rhazes；　and　in　the　catalogue　of　the　Ferrari's　library　more　than　one　half　of　the　books　are　Arabian　commentaries　on　Greek　medicine。　Still　more　striking　evidence　of　their　influence　is　found　in　the　text…book　of　Ferrari；　which　was　printed　in　1471　and　had　been　circulated　earlier　in　MS。　　In　it　Avicenna　is　quoted　more　than　3000　times；　Rhazes　and　Galen　1000；　Hippocrates　only　140　times。　Professor　Ferrari　was　a　man　who　played　an　important　role　in　the　university；　and　had　a　large　consultation　practice。　You　will　be　interested　to　know　what　sort　of　advice　he　gave　in　special　cases。　　I　have　the　record　of　an　elaborate　consultation　written　in　his　own　hand；　from　which　one　may　gather　what　a　formidable　thing　it　was　to　fall　into　the　hands　of　a　mediaeval　physician。　Signor　John　de　Calabria　had　a　digestive　weakness　of　the　stomach；　and　rheumatic　cerebral　disease；　combined　with　superfluous　heat　and　dryness　of　the　liver　and　multiplication　of　choler。　There　is　first　an　elaborate　discussion　on　diet　and　general　mode　of　life；　then　he　proceeds　to　draw　up　certain　light　medicines　as　a　supplement；　but　it　must　have　taken　an　extensive　apothecary's　shop　to　turn　out　the　twenty…two　prescriptions　designed　to　meet　every　possible　contingency。
  One　of　the　difficulties　in　the　early　days　of　the　universities　was　to　procure　good　MSS。　　In　the　Paris　Faculty；　the　records　of　which　are　the　most　complete　in　Europe；　there　is　an　inventory　for　the　year　1395　which　gives　a　list　of　twelve　volumes；　nearly　all　by　Arabian　authors。＇25＇　Franklin　gives　an　interesting