otle〃　or　〃the　Commentator；〃　is　better　known　today　among　philosophers　than　physicians。　On　the　revival　of　Moslem　orthodoxy　he　fell　upon　evil　days；　was　persecuted　as　a　free…thinker；　and　the　saying　is　attributed　to　him〃Sit　anima　mea　cum　philosophic。〃
  Arabian　medicine　had　certain　very　definite　characteristics：　the　basis　was　Greek；　derived　from　translations　of　the　works　of　Hippocrates　and　Galen。　　No　contributions　were　made　to　anatomy；　as　dissections　were　prohibited；　nor　to　physiology；　and　the　pathology　was　practically　that　of　Galen。　　Certain　new　and　important　diseases　were　described；　a　number　of　new　and　active　remedies　were　introduced；　chiefly　from　the　vegetable　kingdom。　The　Arabian　hospitals　were　well　organized　and　were　deservedly　famous。　No　such　hospital　exists　today　in　Cairo　as　that　which　was　built　by　al…Mansur　Gilafun　in　1283。　　The　description　of　it　by　Makrizi；　quoted　by　Neuburger；＇16＇　reads　like　that　of　a　twentieth　century　institution　with　hospital　units。
  ＇16＇　〃I　have　founded　this　institution　for　my　equals　and　for　those　beneath　me；　it　is　intended　for　rulers　and　subjects；　for　soldiers　and　for　the　emir；　for　great　and　small；　freemen　and　slaves；　men　and　women。〃　　〃He　ordered　medicaments；　physicians　and　everything　else　that　could　be　required　by　anyone　in　any　form　of　sickness；　placed　male　and　female　attendants　at　the　disposal　of　the　patients；　determined　their　pay；　provided　beds　for　patients　and　supplied　them　with　every　kind　of　covering　that　could　be　required　in　any　complaint。　Every　class　of　patient　was　accorded　separate　accommodation：　the　four　halls　of　the　hospital　were　set　apart　for　those　with　fever　and　similar　complaints；　one　part　of　the　building　was　reserved　for　eye…patients；　one　for　the　wounded；　one　for　those　suffering　from　diarrhoea；　one　for　women；　a　room　for　convalescents　was　divided　into　two　parts；　one　for　men　and　one　for　women。　Water　was　laid　on　to　all　these　departments。　　One　room　was　set　apart　for　cooking　food；　preparing　medicine　and　cooking　syrups；　another　for　the　compounding　of　confections；　balsams；　eye…salves；　etc。　The　head…physician　had　an　apartment　to　himself　wherein　he　delivered　medical　lectures。　　The　number　of　patients　was　unlimited；　every　sick　or　poor　person　who　came　found　admittance；　nor　was　the　duration　of　his　stay　restricted；　and　even　those　who　were　sick　at　home　were　supplied　with　every　necessity。〃Makrizi。
  〃In　later　times　this　hospital　was　much　extended　and　improved。　The　nursing　was　admirable　and　no　stint　was　made　of　drugs　and　appliances；　each　patient　was　provided　with　means　upon　leaving　so　that　he　should　not　require　immediately　to　undertake　heavy　work。〃　Neuburger：　　History　of　Medicine；　Vol。　1；　p。　378。
  It　was　in　the　domain　of　chemistry　that　the　Arabs　made　the　greatest　advances。　　You　may　remember　that；　in　Egypt；　chemistry　had　already　made　considerable　strides；　and　I　alluded　to　Prof。　Elliot　Smith's　view　that　one　of　the　great　leaps　in　civilization　was　the　discovery　in　the　Nile　Valley　of　the　metallurgy　of　copper。　In　the　brilliant　period　of　the　Ptolemies；　both　chemistry　and　pharmacology　were　studied；　and　it　seems　not　improbable　that；　when　the　Arabs　took　Alexandria　in　the　year　640；　there　were　still　many　workers　in　these　subjects。
  The　most　famous　of　those　early　Arabic　writers　is　the　somewhat　mythical　Geber；　who　lived　in　the　first　half　of　the　eighth　century；　and　whose　writings　had　an　extraordinary　influence　throughout　the　Middle　Ages。　　The　whole　story　of　Geber　is　discussed　by　Berthelot　in　his　〃La　chimie　au　moyen　age〃　（Paris；　1896）。　The　transmission　of　Arabian　science　to　the　Occident　began　with　the　Crusades；　though　earlier　a　filtering　of　important　knowledge　in　mathematics　and　astronomy　had　reached　Southern　and　Middle　Europe　through　Spain。　　Among　the　translators　several　names　stand　out　prominently。　Gerbert；　who　became　later　Pope　Sylvester　II；　is　said　to　have　given　us　our　present　Arabic　figures。　　You　may　read　the　story　of　his　remarkable　life　in　Taylor；＇17＇　who　says　he　was　〃the　first　mind　of　his　time；　its　greatest　teacher；　its　most　eager　learner；　and　most　universal　scholar。〃　But　he　does　not　seem　to　have　done　much　directly　for　medicine。
  ＇17＇　The　Mediaeval　Mind；　Vol。　I；　p。　280。
  The　Graeco…Arabic　learning　passed　into　Europe　through　two　sources。　As　I　have　already　mentioned；　Constantinus　Africanus；　a　North　African　Christian　monk；　widely　travelled　and　learned　in　languages；　came　to　Salernum　and　translated　many　works　from　Arabic　into　Latin；　particularly　those　of　Hippocrates　and　Galen。　　The　〃Pantegni〃　of　the　latter　became　one　of　the　most　popular　text…books　of　the　Middle　Ages。　　A　long　list　of　other　works　which　he　translated　is　given　by　Steinschneider。＇17a＇　It　is　not　unlikely　that　Arabic　medicine　had　already　found　its　way　to　Salernum　before　the　time　of　Constantine；　but　the　influence　of　his　translations　upon　the　later　Middle　Ages　was　very　great。
  ＇17a＇　Steinschneider：　　Virchow's　Arch。；　Berl。；　1867；　xxxvii；　351。
  The　second　was　a　more　important　source　through　the　Latin　translators　in　Spain；　particularly　in　Toledo；　where；　from　the　middle　of　the　twelfth　till　the　middle　of　the　thirteenth　century；　an　extraordinary　number　of　Arabic　works　in　philosophy；　mathematics　and　astronomy　were　translated。　Among　the　translators；　Gerard　of　Cremona　is　prominent；　and　has　been　called　the　〃Father　of　Translators。〃　　He　was　one　of　the　brightest　intelligences　of　the　Middle　Ages；　and　did　a　work　of　the　first　importance　to　science；　through　the　extraordinary　variety　of　material　he　put　in　circulation。　Translations；　not　only　of　the　medical　writers；　but　of　an　indiscriminate　crowd　of　authors　in　philosophy　and　general　literature；　came　from　his　pen。　He　furnished　one　of　the　first　translations　of　the　famous　〃Almagest〃　of　Ptolemy；　which　opened　the　eyes　of　his　contemporaries　to　the　value　of　the　Alexandrian　astronomy。＇18＇　Leclerc　gives　a　list　of　seventy…one　works　from　his　hand。
  ＇18＇　For　an　account　of　that　remarkable　work　see　German　translation　by　Manitius；　Leipzig；　1912。
  Many　of　the　translators　of　the　period　were　Jews；　and　many　of　the　works　were　translated　from　Hebrew　into　Latin。　　For　years　Arabic　had　been　the　learned　language　of　the　Jews；　and　in　a　large　measure　it　was　through　them　that　the　Arabic　knowledge　and　the　translations　passed　into　South　and　Central　Europe。
  The　Arab　writer　whose　influence　on　mediaeval　thought　was　the　most　profound　was　Averroes；　the　great　commentator　on　Aristotle。
  THE　RISE　OF　THE　UNIVERSITIES
  THE　most　striking　intellectual　phenomenon　of　the　thirteenth　century　is　the　rise　of　the　universities。　　The　story　of　their　foundation　is　fully　stated　in　Rashdall's　great　work　（Universities　of　Europe　in　the　Middle　Ages；　Oxford；　1895）。　Monastic　and　collegiate　schools；　seats　of　learning　like　Salernum；　student　guilds　as　at　Bologna；　had　tried　to　meet　the　educational　needs　of　the　age。　The　word　〃university〃　literally　means　an　association；　and　was　not　at　first　restricted　to　learned　bodies。　The　origin　appears　to　have　been　in　certain　guilds　of　students　formed　for　mutual　protection　associated　at　some　place　specially　favorable　for　studythe　attraction　generally　being　a　famous　teacher。　The　University　of　Bologna　grew　up　about　guilds　formed　by　students　of　law；　and　at　Paris；　early　in　the　twelfth　century；　there　were　communities　of　teachers；　chiefly　in　philosophy　and　theology。　In　this　way　arose　two　different　types　of　mediaeval　university。　The　universities　of　Northern　Italy　were　largely　controlled　by　students；　who　were　grouped　in　different　〃nations。〃　　They　arranged　the　lectures　and　had　control　of　the　appointment　of　teachers。　On　the　other　hand；　in　the　universities　founded　on　the　Paris　model　the　masters　had　control　of　the　studies；　though　the　students；　also　in　nations；　managed　their　own　affairs。
  Two　universities　have　a　special　interest　at　this　period　in　connection　with　the　development　of　medical　studies；　Bologna　and　Montpellier。　　At　the　former　the　study　of　anatomy　was　revived。　In　the　knowledge　of　the　structure　of　the　human　body　no　advance　had　been　made　for　more　than　a　thousand　yearssince　Galen's　day。　In　the　process　of　translation　from　Greek　to　Syriac；　from　Syriac　to　Arabic；　from　Arabic　to　Hebrew；　and　from　Hebrew　or　Arabic　to　Latin；　both　the　form　and　thought　of　the　old　Greek　writers　were　not　infrequently　confused　and　often　even　perverted；　and　Galen's　anatomy　had　suffered　severely　in　the　transmission。　Our　earliest　knowledge　of　the　teaching　of　medicine　at　Bologna　is　connected　with　a　contemporary　of　Dante；　Taddeo　Alderotti；　who　combined　Arabian　erudition　with　the　Greek　spirit。　He　occupied　a　position　of　extraordinary　prominence；　was　regarded　as　the　first　citizen　of　Bologna　and　a　public　benefactor　exempt　from　the　payment　of　taxes。　That　he　should　have　acquired　wealth　is　not　surprising　if　his　usual　fees　were　at　the　rate　at　which　he　charged　Pope　Honorius　IV；　i。e。；　two　hundred　florins　a　day；　besides　a　〃gratification〃　of　six　thousand　florins。
  The　man　who　most　powerfully　influenced　the　study　of　medicine　in　Bologna　was　Mundinus；　the　first　modern　student　of　anatomy。　We　have　seen　that　at　the　school　of　Salernum　it　was　decreed　that　the　human　body　should　be　dissected　at　least　once　every　five　years；　but　it　was　with　the　greatest　difficulty　that　permission　was　obtained　for　this　purpose。　　It　seems　probable　that　under　the　strong　influence　of　Taddeo　there　was　an　occasion