l　from　his　birth。　Man　was　a　part　of　nature　and　subject　to　its　laws。　　The　thought　could　therefore　arise　that；　if　the　conditions　in　the　heavens　were　studied　under　which　a　man　was　born；　that　man's　future　could　be　determined　in　accord　with　the　beliefs　associated　with　the　position　of　the　planets　rising　or　visible　at　the　time　of　birth　or；　according　to　other　views；　at　the　time　of　conception。　These　views　take　us　back　directly　to　the　system　of　astrology　developed　by　Babylonian　baru　priests。　The　basis　on　which　the　modified　Greek　system　rests　is　likewise　the　same　that　we　have　observed　in　Babyloniaa　correspondence　between　heaven　and　earth；　but　with　this　important　difference；　that　instead　of　the　caprice　of　the　gods　we　have　the　unalterable　fate　controlling　the　entire　universethe　movements　of　the　heavens　and　the　life　of　the　individual　alike〃　（Jastrow）。＇19＇
  ＇19＇　Ibid。；　pp。　257…258。
  From　this　time　on　until　the　Renaissance；　like　a　shadow；　astrology　follows　astronomy。　　Regarded　as　two　aspects　of　the　same　subject；　the　one；　natural　astrology；　the　equivalent　of　astronomy；　was　concerned　with　the　study　of　the　heavens；　the　other；　judicial　astrology；　was　concerned　with　the　casting　of　horoscopes；　and　reading　in　the　stars　the　fate　of　the　individual。
  As　I　mentioned；　Greek　science　in　its　palmy　days　seems　to　have　been　very　free　from　the　bad　features　of　astrology。　　Gilbert　Murray　remarks　that　〃astrology　fell　upon　the　Hellenistic　mind　as　a　new　disease　falls　upon　some　remote　island　people。〃　　But　in　the　Greek　conquest　of　the　Roman　mind；　astrology　took　a　prominent　role。　It　came　to　Rome　as　part　of　the　great　Hellenizing　movement；　and　the　strength　of　its　growth　may　be　gauged　from　the　edicts　issued　against　astrologers　as　early　as　the　middle　of　the　second　century　B。C。　In　his　introduction　to　his　recent　edition　of　Book　II　of　the　Astronomicon　of　Manilius；　Garrod　traces　the　growth　of　the　cult；　which　under　the　Empire　had　an　extraordinary　vogue。　〃Though　these　＇heavenly＇　signs　be　far　removed　from　us；　yet　does　he　＇the　god＇　so　make　their　influences　felt；　that　they　give　to　nations　their　life　and　their　fate　and　to　each　man　his　own　character。〃＇20＇　Oracles　were　sought　on　all　occasions；　from　the　planting　of　a　tree　to　the　mating　of　a　horse；　and　the　doctrine　of　the　stars　influenced　deeply　all　phases　of　popular　thought　and　religion。　The　professional　astrologers；　as　Pliny＇21＇　says；　were　Chaldeans；　Egyptians　and　Greeks。　　The　Etruscans；　too；　the　professional　diviners　of　Rome；　cultivated　the　science。　Many　of　these　〃Isiaci　conjectores〃　and　〃astrologi　de　circo〃　were　worthless　charlatans；　but　on　the　whole　the　science　seems　to　have　attracted　the　attention　of　thoughtful　men　of　the　period。　Garrod　quotes　the　following　remarkable　passage　from　Tacitus：　〃My　judgment　wavers；〃　he　says；　〃I　dare　not　say　whether　it　be　fate　and　necessity　immutable　which　governs　the　changing　course　of　human　affairsor　just　chance。　　Among　the　wisest　of　the　ancients；　as　well　as　among　their　apes；　you　will　find　a　conflict　of　opinion。　Many　hold　fixedly　the　idea　that　our　beginning　and　our　endthat　man　himselfis　nothing　to　the　Gods　at　all。　The　wicked　are　in　prosperity　and　the　good　meet　tribulation。　Others　believe　that　Fate　and　the　facts　of　this　world　work　together。　But　this　connection　they　trace　not　to　planetary　influences　but　to　a　concatenation　of　natural　causes。　　We　choose　our　life　that　is　free：　but　the　choice　once　made；　what　awaits　us　is　fixed　and　ordered。　Good　and　evil　are　different　from　the　vulgar　opinion　of　them。　Often　those　who　seem　to　battle　with　adversity　are　to　be　accounted　blessed；　but　the　many；　even　in　their　prosperity；　are　miserable。　It　needs　only　to　bear　misfortune　bravely；　while　the　fool　perishes　in　his　wealth。　　Outside　these　rival　schools　stands　the　man　in　the　street。　　No　one　will　take　from　him　his　conviction　that　at　our　birth　are　fixed　for　us　the　things　that　shall　be。　If　some　things　fall　out　differently　from　what　was　foretold；　that　is　due　to　the　deceit　of　men　that　speak　what　they　know　not：　calling　into　contempt　a　science　to　which　past　and　present　alike　bear　a　glorious　testimony〃　（Ann。　vi；　22）。
  ＇20＇　Manili　Astronomicon　Liber　II；　ed。　H。　W。　Garrod；　Oxford；　1911；　p。　lxix；　and　II；　ll。　84…86。
  ＇21＇　Pliny：　　Natural　History；　Bk。　XVIII；　Chap。　XXV；　Sect。　57。
  Cato　waged　war　on　the　Greek　physicians　and　forbade　〃his　uilicus　all　resort　to　haruspicem；　augurem；　hariolum　Chaldaeum；〃　but　in　vain；　so　widespread　became　the　belief　that　the　great　philosopher；　Panaetius　（who　died　about　111　B。C。）；　and　two　of　his　friends　alone　among　the　stoics；　rejected　the　claims　of　astrology　as　a　science　（Garrod）。　So　closely　related　was　the　subject　of　mathematics　that　it；　too；　fell　into　disfavor；　and　in　the　Theodosian　code　sentence　of　death　was　passed　upon　mathematicians。　Long　into　the　Middle　Ages；　the　same　unholy　alliance　with　astrology　and　divination　caused　mathematics　to　be　regarded　with　suspicion；　and　even　Abelard　calls　it　a　nefarious　study。
  The　third　important　feature　in　Babylonian　medicine　is　the　evidence　afforded　by　the　famous　Hammurabi　Code　（circa　2000　B。C。）　a　body　of　laws；　civil　and　religious；　many　of　which　relate　to　the　medical　profession。　　This　extraordinary　document　　is　a　black　diorite　block　8　feet　high；　once　containing　21　columns　on　the　obverse；　16　and　28　columns　on　the　reverse；　with　2540　lines　of　writing　of　which　now　1114　remain；　and　surmounted　by　the　figure　of　the　king　receiving　the　law　from　the　Sun…god。　Copies　of　this　were　set　up　in　Babylon　〃that　anyone　oppressed　or　injured；　who　had　a　tale　of　woe　to　tell；　might　come　and　stand　before　his　image；　that　of　a　king　of　righteousness；　and　there　read　the　priceless　orders　of　the　King；　and　from　the　written　monument　solve　his　problem〃　（Jastrow）。　From　the　enactments　of　the　code　we　gather　that　the　medical　profession　must　have　been　in　a　highly　organized　state；　for　not　only　was　practice　regulated　in　detail；　but　a　scale　of　fees　was　laid　down；　and　penalties　exacted　for　malpraxis。　Operations　were　performed；　and　the　veterinary　art　was　recognized。　An　interesting　feature；　from　which　it　is　lucky　that　we　have　in　these　days　escaped；　is　the　application　of　the　〃lex　talionis〃　an　eye　for　an　eye；　bone　for　a　bone；　and　tooth　for　a　tooth；　which　is　a　striking　feature　of　the　code。
  Some　of　the　laws　of　the　code　may　be　quoted：
  Paragraph　215。　　If　a　doctor　has　treated　a　gentleman　for　a　severe　wound　with　a　bronze　lances　and　has　cured　the　man；　or　has　opened　an　abscess　of　the　eye　for　a　gentleman　with　the　bronze　lances　and　has　cured　the　eye　of　the　gentleman；　he　shall　take　ten　shekels　of　silver。
  218。　　If　the　doctor　has　treated　a　gentleman　for　a　severe　wound　with　a　lances　of　bronze　and　has　caused　the　gentleman　to　die；　or　has　opened　an　abscess　of　the　eye　for　a　gentleman　and　has　caused　the　loss　of　the　gentleman's　eye；　one　shall　cut　off　his　hands。
  219。　　If　a　doctor　has　treated　the　severe　wound　of　a　slave　of　a　poor　man　with　a　bronze　lances　and　has　caused　his　death；　he　shall　render　slave　for　slave。
  220。　　If　he　has　opened　his　abscess　with　a　bronze　lances　and　has　made　him　lose　his　eye；　he　shall　pay　money；　half　his　price。
  221。　　If　a　doctor　has　cured　the　shattered　limb　of　a　gentleman；　or　has　cured　the　diseased　bowel；　the　patient　shall　give　five　shekels　of　silver　to　the　doctor。
  224。　　If　a　cow　doctor　or　a　sheep　doctor　has　treated　a　cow　or　a　sheep　for　a　severe　wound　and　cured　it；　the　owner　of　the　cow　or　sheep　shall　give　one…sixth　of　a　shekel　of　silver　to　the　doctor　as　his　fee。＇22＇
  ＇22＇　The　Oldest　Code　of　Laws　in　the　World；　translated　by　C。　H。　W。　Johns；　Edinburgh；　1903。
  HEBREW　MEDICINE
  THE　medicine　of　the　Old　Testament　betrays　both　Egyptian　and　Babylonian　influences；　the　social　hygiene　is　a　reflex　of　regulations　the　origin　of　which　may　be　traced　in　the　Pyramid　Texts　and　in　the　papyri。　The　regulations　in　the　Pentateuch　codes　revert　in　part　to　primitive　times；　in　part　represent　advanced　views　of　hygiene。　　There　are　doubts　if　the　Pentateuch　code　really　goes　back　to　the　days　of　Moses；　but　certainly　someone　〃learned　in　the　wisdom　of　the　Egyptians〃　drew　it　up。　As　Neuburger　briefly　summarizes：
  〃The　commands　concern　prophylaxis　and　suppression　of　epidemics；　suppression　of　venereal　disease　and　prostitution；　care　of　the　skin；　baths；　food；　housing　and　clothing；　regulation　of　labour；　sexual　life；　discipline　of　the　people；　etc。　　Many　of　these　commands；　such　as　Sabbath　rest；　circumcision；　laws　concerning　food　（interdiction　of　blood　and　pork）；　measures　concerning　menstruating　and　lying…in　women　and　those　suffering　from　gonorrhoea；　isolation　of　lepers；　and　hygiene　of　the　camp；　are；　in　view　of　the　conditions　of　the　climate；　surprisingly　rational。〃＇23＇
  ＇23＇　Neuburger：　　History　of　Medicine；　Oxford　University　Press；　1910；　Vol。　I；　p。　38。
  Divination；　not　very　widely　practiced；　was　borrowed；　no　doubt；　from　Babylonia。　　Joseph's　cup　was　used　for　the　purpose；　and　in　Numbers；　the　elders　of　Balak　went　to　Balaam　with　the　rewards　of　divination　in　their　hands。　　The　belief　in　enchantments　and　witchcraft　was　universal；　and　the　strong　enactments　against　witches　in　the　Old　Testament　made　a　belief　in　them　almost　imperative　until　more　rational　beliefs　came　into　vogue　in　the　eighteenth　and　nineteenth　centuries。
  Whatever　view　we　may　take　of　it；　the　medicine　of　the　New　Testament　is　full　of　interest。　　Divination　is　only　re