experience；　to　the　existence　of　certain　impulses。　These　are　certainly　determinations　in　ourselves；
  but　we　have　not　known　them　in　their　necessity。　Such　an　impulse　is　besides　taken　as　natural；　and
  thus　it　is　here　indeterminate　in　itself；　it　has　its　limitation　only　as　a　moment　of　the　whole。　In　regard　to
  knowledge；　very　abstract　thoughts　are　to　be　found　—　though　of　a　truth　they　are　quite　as　good　as
  ours；　and　more　ingenious　—　which　according　to　their　content　ought　to　be　concrete；　and　also　were
  so。　But　so　superficially　were　they　comprehended　that　they　soon　showed　themselves　far　from
  sufficient　for　what　had　to　be　derived　from　them。　They　said；　for　instance；　that　Nature　is　a　whole；
  that　all　is　determined　by　laws；　through　a　combination　of　different　movements；　through　a　chain　of
  causes　and　effects；　and　so　on；　the　various　properties；　materials；　connections　of　things　bring
  everything　to　pass。　Those　are　general　phrases；　with　which　one　can　fill　whole　books。
  a。　SYSTèME　DE　LA　NATURE。
  To　this　philosophy　belongs　the　Système　de　la　Nature；　the　leading　work　on　the　subject；　written　in
  Paris　by　a　German；　Baron　von　Hollbach；　who　was　the　central　figure　of　all　those　philosophers。
  Montesquieu；　d'Alembert；　Rousseau；　were　for　a　time　in　his　circle；　however　much　these　men　were
  moved　to　indignation　at　the　existing　state　of　things；　they　were　yet　in　other　respects　very　different
  from　one　another。　The　Système　de　la　Nature　may　very　easily　be　found　tiresome　to　read；　because
  it　treats　discursively　of　general　conceptions；　which　are　often　repeated；　it　is　not　a　French　book；　for
  vivacity　is　lacking　and　the　mode　of　presentation　is　dull。
  The　great　Whole　of　Nature　（le　grand　tout　de　la　nature）　is　the　ultimate：　“The　universe　displays
  nothing　but　an　immense　collection　of　matter　and　motion”　（as　with　Descartes）；　“an　unbroken　chain
  of　causes　and　effects；　of　which　causes　some　directly　affect　our　senses；　while　others　are　unknown
  to　us；　because　their　effects；　which　we　perceive；　are　too　remote　from　their　causes。　The　different
  qualities　of　these　materials；　their　manifold　connections；　and　the　effects　which　result　therefrom；
  constitute　essences　for　us。　From　the　diversity　of　these　essences　arise　the　different　orders；　species；
  systems；　under　which　things　fall；　and　whose　sum　total；　the　great　whole；　is　what　we　call　Nature。”（2）
  It　is　like　what　Aristotle　（vide　Vol。　I。　p。　241）　says　of　Xenophanes；　that　he　gazed　into　the　blue；　i。e。
  into　Being。　According　to　Hollbach　all　is　movement；　matter　moves　itself：　beer　ferments；　the　soul　is
  moved　by　its　passions。（3）　“The　manifold　variety　of　natural　phenomena；　and　their　incessant　rise　and
  disappearance；　have　their　sole　ground　in　the　variety　of　motions　and　of　their　material。”　Through
  different　combinations　and　modifications；　through　a　different　arrangement；　another　thing　is
  originated。　“Material　substances　have　either　a　tendency　to　combine　with　one　another；　or　else　they
  are　incapable　of　so　combining。　Upon　this　are　based　by　physical　scientists　the　forces　of　attraction
  and　repulsion；　sympathy　and　antipathy；　affinity　and　relation；　and　the　moralists　base　thereon　hatred
  and　love；　friendship　and　enmity。”　Spirit；　the　incorporeal；　contradicts　or　opposes　itself　to　motion；
  to　a　change　of　the　relations　of　a　body　in　space。（4）
  b。　ROBINET。
  Another　work　of　importance　is　the　still　more　“dangerous”　treatise；　De　la　Nature；　by　Robinet。　In
  it　there　reigns　quite　a　different　and　a　deeper　spirit；　one　is　frequently　struck　by　the　depth　of
  earnestness　which　the　writer　displays。　He　begins　thus：　“There　is　a　God；　i。e。；　a　cause　of　the
  phenomena　of　that　Whole　which　we　call　Nature。　Who　is　God？　We　know　not；　and　we　are　so
  constituted　that　we　can　never　know　in　what　order　of　things　we　have　been　placed。　We　cannot
  know　God　perfectly；　because　the　means　of　doing　so　will　always　be　lacking　to　us。　We　too　might
  write　over　the　doors　of　our　temples　the　words　which　were　to　be　read　upon　the　altar　which　the
  Areopagite　raised；　'To　the　unknown　God。'”　The　very　same　thing　is　said　nowadays：　there　can　be
  no　transition　from　the　finite　to　the　infinite。　“The　order　which　reigns　in　the　universe　is　just　as　little　the
  visible　type　of　His　wisdom；　as　our　weak　mind　is　the　image　of　His　intelligence。”　But　this　First
  Cause；　God；　is　according　to　Robinet　a　creative　God；　He　has　brought　Nature　into　existence；　so
  that　for　him　the　only　possible　knowledge　is　that　of　Nature。　“There　is　only　One　Cause。　The　eternal
  Cause；　who　so　to　speak　had　sown　（engrainé）　events　one　in　the　other；　in　order　that　they　might
  without　fail　follow　one　upon　another　as　He　chose；　in　the　beginning　set　in　motion　the　endless　chain
  of　things。　Through　this　permanent　impression　the　Universe　goes　on　living；　moving　and　perpetuating
  itself。　From　the　unity　of　cause　there　follows　the　unity　of　activity；　for　even　it　does　not　appear　as
  something　to　be　more　or　less　admitted。　By　virtue　of　this　single　act　all　things　come　to　pass。　Since
  man　has　made　Nature　his　study；　he　has　found　no　isolated　phenomenon；　and　no　independent　truth；
  because　there　are　not　and　cannot　be　such。　The　whole　sustains　itself　through　the　mutual
  correspondence　of　its　parts。”（5）　The　activity　of　Nature　is　one；　as　God　is　One。
  This　activity；　more　particularly　regarded；　signifies　that　germs　unfold　themselves　in　everything：
  everywhere　there　are　organic　Beings　which　produce　themselves；　nothing　is　isolated；　everything　is
  combined　and　connected　and　in　harmony。　Robinet　here　goes　through　the　plants；　the　animals；　and
  also　the　metals；　the　elements；　air；　fire；　water；　&c。；　and　seeks　from　them　to　demonstrate　the
  existence　of　the　germ　in　whatever　has　life；　and　also　how　metals　are　organised　in　themselves。　“The
  example　of　the　polypus　is　convincing　as　to　the　animal　nature　（animalité）　of　the　smallest　portions　of
  organised　matter；　for　the　polypus　is　a　group　of　associated　polypi；　each　of　which　is　as　much　a　true
  polypus　as　the　first。　It　stands　proved　that　from　the　same　point　of　view　the　living　consists　only　of　the
  living；　the　animals　of　minute　animals；　every　animal　in　particular　of　minute　animals　of　the　same　kind；
  a　dog　of　dog…germs；　man　of　human　germs。”　In　proof　of　this　Robinet　states　in　a　“Recapitulation”
  that　“animal　sperm　swarms　with　spermatic　animalcules。”　Since　he　then　connects　every
  propagation　properly　so…called　with　the　co…operation　of　both　sexes；　he　alleges　that　every
  individual　is　inwardly　or　also　in　the　external　organs　a　hermaphrodite。　Of　the　minerals　he　says：　“Are
  we　not　compelled　to　regard　as　organic　bodies　all　those　in　which　we　meet　with　an　inward　structure
  such　as　this？　It　presupposes　throughout　a　seed；　seed…granules；　germs；　of　which　they　are　the
  development。”　In　the　same　way　the　air　must　have　its　germ；　which　does　not　come　to　reality　until　it
  is　nourished　by　water；　fire；　&c。　“The　air；　as　principle；　is　only　the　germ　of　the　air；　as　it　impregnates
  or　saturates　itself　in　varying　degrees　with　water　and　fire；　it　will　gradually　pass　through　different
  stages　of　growth：　it　will　become　first　embryo；　then　perfect　air。”（6）　Robinet　gives　the　name　of　germ
  to　the　simple　form　in　itself；　the　substantial　form；　the　Notion。　Although　he　seeks　to　prove　this　too
  much　from　the　sensuous　side；　he　yet　proceeds　from　principles　in　themselves　concrete；　from　the
  form　in　itself。
  He　speaks　also　of　the　evil　and　good　in　the　world。　The　result　of　his　observation　is　that　good　and
  evil　balance　each　other；　this　equilibrium　constitutes　the　beauty　of　the　world。　In　order　to　refute　the
  assertion　that　there　is　more　good　than　evil　in　the　world；　he　says　that　everything　to　which　we　reduce
  the　good　consists　only　in　an　enjoyment；　a　pleasure；　a　satisfaction；　but　this　must　be　preceded　by　a
  want；　a　lack；　a　pain；　the　removal　of　which　constitutes　satisfaction。（7）　This　is　not　only　a　correct
  thought　empirically；　but　it　also　hints　at　the　deeper　idea　that　there　is　no　activity　except　through
  contradiction。
  3。　IDEA　OF　A　CONCRETE　UNIVERSAL　UNITY。
  The　result　of　the　French　philosophy　is　that　it　insisted　on　maintaining　a　general　unity；　not　abstract；
  but　concrete。　Thus　Robinet　now　propounded　the　theory　of　a　universal　organic　life；　and　a　uniform
  mode　of　origination；　this　concrete　system　he　called　Nature；　over　which　God　was　set；　but　as　the
  unknowable；　all　predicates　which　could　be　expressed　of　Him　contained　something　inapplicable。
  We　must　admit　that　grand　conceptions　of　concrete　unity　are　to　be　found　here；　as　opposed　to　the
  abstract　metaphysical　determinations　of　the　understanding；　e。g。；　the　fruitfulness　of　Nature。　But；　on
  the　other　hand；　the　point　of　most　importance　with　these　philosophers　is　that　what　is　to　be　accepted
  as　valid　must　have　presence；　and　that　man　in　all　knowledge　must　be　himself　the　knower；　for；　as　we
  may　see；　those　philosophers　made　war　on　all　external　authority　of　state　and　church；　and　in
  particular　on　abstract　thought　which　has　no　present　meaning　in　us。　Two　determinations　found　in　all
  philosophy　are　the　concretion　of　the　Idea　and　the　presence　of　the　spirit　in　the　same；　my　content
  must　at　the　same　time　be　something　concrete；　present。　This　concrete　was　termed　Reason；　and　for
  it　the　more　noble　of　those　men　contended　with　the　greatest　enthusiasm　and　warmth。　Thought　was
  raised　like　a　standard　among　the　nations；　liberty　of　convict