and　lifeless。　What　we　call　religion　is　firm　faith；　conviction　that　there　is　a　God；　if　this　is　faith　in　the
  doctrines　of　Christianity；　it　is　more　or　less　abstracted　from。　But　in　this　attack　against　religion　we
  have　to　think　of　something　quite　different　from　the　above；　in　what　we　find　here；　the　positive　of
  religion　is　the　negative　of　reason。　If　we　would　understand　the　feeling　of　indignation　to　which　these
  writers　give　utterance；　we　must　keep　before　our　eyes　the　state　of　religion　in　those　days；　with　its
  might　and　magnificence；　the　corruption　of　its　manners；　its　avarice；　its　ambition；　its　luxury；　for　which
  nevertheless　reverence　was　claimed　—　a　state　of　contradiction　present　and　existent。　We　perceive
  into　what　a　frightful　condition　of　formalism　and　deadness　positive　religion　had　sunk；　as　had　the
  bonds　of　society　as　well；　the　means　employed　for　the　administration　of　justice；　the　power　of　the
  state。　This　French　philosophy　also　attacked　the　state；　it　assailed　prejudices　and　superstition；
  especially　the　depravity　of　civic　life；　of　court　manners　and　of　Government　officials；　it　laid　hold　of
  and　brought　to　light　the　evil；　the　ridiculous；　the　base；　and　exposed　the　whole　tissue　of　hypocrisy
  and　unjust　power　to　the　derision；　the　contempt　and　the　hatred　of　the　world　at　large；　and　thus
  brought　men's　minds　and　hearts　into　a　state　of　indifference　to　the　idols　of　the　world　and　indignation
  against　them。　Old　institutions；　which　in　the　sense　of　self…conscious　freedom　and　humanity　that　had
  developed；　no　longer　found　a　place；　and　which　had　formerly　been　founded　and　upheld　by　mutual
  good　feeling　and　the　obtuseness　of　a　consciousness　unconscious　of　self；　institutions　which　were　no
  longer　in　harmony　with　the　spirit　that　had　established　them；　and　now；　in　consequence　of　the
  advance　that　had　been　made　in　scientific　culture；　were　bound　to　make　good　to　reason　their　claim
  to　be　sacred　and　just；　—　this　was　the　formalism　that　those　philosophers　overthrew。　In　making　their
  attacks；　they　wrote　sometimes　with　reasoned　argument；　sometimes　satirically；　sometimes　in　the
  language　of　plain　common…sense；　and　they　did　not　wage　war　on　what　we　call　religion；　that；　was
  left　quite　unharmed；　and　its　claims　were　urged　with　words　of　choicest　eloquence。　Those　who
  enforced　these　views　were　therefore　agents　of　destruction　against　that　alone　which　was　in　itself
  already　destroyed。　We　place　it　to　our　credit　when　we　reproach　the　French　for　their　attacks　upon
  religion　and　on　the　state。　We　must　represent　to　ourselves　the　horrible　state　of　society；　the　misery
  and　degradation　in　France；　in　order　to　appreciate　the　services　that　these　writers　rendered。
  Hypocrisy　and　cant；　imbecility　of　mind　and　the　tyranny　which　sees　itself　robbed　of　its　prey；　may
  say　that　attacks　were　made　on　religion；　on　the　state；　and　on　manners。　But　what　a　religion！　Not　the
  religion　that　Luther　purified；　but　the　most　wretched　superstition；　priestly　domination；　stupidity；
  degradation　of　mind；　and　more　especially　the　squandering　of　riches　and　the　revelling　in　temporal
  possessions　in　the　midst　of　public　misery。　And　what　a　state！　The　blindest　tyranny　of　ministers　and
  their　mistresses；　wives　and　chamberlains　so　that　a　vast　army　of　petty　tyrants　and　idlers　looked
  upon　it　as　a　right　divinely　given　them　to　plunder　the　revenues　of　the　state　and　lay　hands　upon　the
  product　of　the　nation's　sweat。　The　shamelessness；　the　dishonesty　were　past　belief；　and　morals
  were　simply　in　keeping　with　the　corruptness　of　the　institutions。　We　see　the　law　defied　by
  individuals　in　respect　to　civil　and　political　life；　we　see　it　likewise　set　at　nought　in　respect　to
  conscience　and　thought。
  In　regard　to　practical　politics；　the　writers　in　question　never　even　thought　of　a　revolution；　but
  desired　and　demanded　reforms　alone；　and　that　these　should　be　subjective　mainly；　they　called　on
  the　Government　to　sweep　away　abuses；　and　appoint　honourable　men　as　ministers。　The　positive
  recommendations　made　by　them　as　to　the　course　to　be　pursued　were；　for　example；　that　the　royal
  children　should　receive　a　good　upbringing；　that　princes　should　be　of　frugal　habits；　&c。　The　French
  Revolution　was　forced　on　by　the　stiff…necked　obstinacy　of　prejudices；　by　haughtiness；　utter　want
  of　thought；　and　avarice。　The　philosophers　of　whom　we　are　speaking　were　able　to　give　only　a
  general　idea　of　what　ought　to　be　done；　they　could　not　indicate　the　mode　in　which　the　reforms　were
  to　be　carried　out。　It　was　the　Government's　business　to　make　arrangements　and　carry　out　reforms
  in　concrete　shape；　but　it　did　not　perceive　this。　What　the　philosophers　brought　forward　and
  maintained　as　a　remedy　for　this　horrible　state　of　disorder　was；　speaking　generally；　that　men　should
  no　longer　be　in　the　position　of　laymen；　either　with　regard　to　religion　or　to　law；　so　that　in　religious
  matters　there　should　not　be　a　hierarchy；　a　limited　and　selected　number　of　priests；　and　in　the　same
  way　that　there　should　not　be　in　legal　matters　an　exclusive　caste　and　society　（not　even　a　class　of
  professional　lawyers）；　in　whom　should　reside；　and　to　whom　should　be　restricted；　the　knowledge　of
  what　is　eternal；　divine；　true；　and　right；　and　by　whom　other　men　should　be　commanded　and
  directed；　but　that　human　reason　should　have　the　right　of　giving　its　assent　and　its　opinion。　To　treat
  barbarians　as　laymen　is　quite　as　it　should　be　—　barbarians　are　nothing　but　laymen；　but　to　treat
  thinking　men　as　laymen　is　very　hard。　This　great　claim　made　by　man　to　subjective　freedom；
  perception　and　conviction；　the　philosophers　in　question　contended　for　heroically　and　with　splendid
  genius；　with　warmth　and　fire；　with　spirit　and　courage；　maintaining　that　a　man's　own　self；　the　human
  spirit；　is　the　source　from　which　is　derived　all　that　is　to　be　respected　by　him。　There　thus　manifests
  itself　in　them　the　fanaticism　of　abstract　thought。　We　Germans　were　passive　at　first　with　regard　to
  the　existing　state　of　affairs；　we　endured　it；　in　the　second　place；　when　that　state　of　affairs　was
  overthrown；　we　were　just　as　passive：　it　was　overthrown　by　the　efforts　of　others；　we　let　it　be　taken
  away　from　us；　we　suffered　it　all　to　happen。
  In　Germany；　Frederick　II。　allied　himself　with　this　culture；　a　rare　example　in　those　days。　French
  court　manners；　operas；　gardens；　dresses；　were　widely　adopted　in　Germany；　but　not　French
  philosophy；　yet　in　the　form　of　wit　and　jest　much　of　it　found　its　way　into　this　upper　world；　and　much
  that　was　evil　and　barbarous　was　driven　away。　Frederick　II。；　without　having　been　brought　up　on
  melancholy　psalms；　without　having　had　to　learn　one　or　two　of　them　every　day　by　heart；　without　the
  barbarous　metaphysics　and　logic　of　Wolff　（for　what　did　he　find　to　admire　in　Germany　except
  Gellert？）；　was　well　acquainted　with　the　great；　although　formal　and　abstract　principles　of　religion
  and　the　state；　and　governed　in　accordance　therewith；　as　far　as　circumstances　allowed。　Nothing
  else　was　at　that　time　required　in　his　nation；　one　cannot　ask　that　he　should　have　reformed　and
  revolutionised　it；　since　not　a　single　person　yet　demanded　representative　government　and　the
  publicity　of　courts　of　justice。　He　introduced　what　there　was　need　of；　religious　tolerance；　legislation；
  improvements　in　the　administration　of　justice；　economy　in　the　revenues　of　state；　of　the　wretched
  German　law　there　remained　no　longer　in　his　states　even　the　merest　phantom。　He　showed　what　was
  the　object　and　purpose　of　the　state；　and　at　the　same　time　cast　down　all　privileges；　the　private　rights
  which　pertained　to　Germans；　and　arbitrary　statute　laws。　It　is　foolish　when　cant　and　German
  pseudo…patriotism　pounce　down　upon　him　now；　and　try　to　disparage　the　greatness　of　a　man
  whose　influence　was　so　enormous；　and　would　even　detract　from　his　fame　by　a　charge　of　vanity
  and　wickedness。　What　German　patriotism　aims　at　should　be　reasonable。
  2。　THE　POSITIVE　ASPECT。
  The　affirmative　content　of　this　philosophy　certainly　does　not　satisfy　the　requirements　of　profundity。
  A　leading　characteristic　of　its　teaching；　which　is　found　also　with　the　Scottish　philosophers　and　with
  ourselves；　is　the　assumption　of　primitive　feelings　of　justice　which　man　has　in　himself；　as　for　example
  benevolence　and　social　instincts　which　should　be　cultivated。　The　positive　source　of　knowledge　and
  of　justice　is　placed　in　human　reason　and　the　common　consciousness　of　mankind；　in　the　healthy
  human　reason；　and　not　in　the　form　of　the　Notion。　It　is　certainly　wonderful　to　find　truths　expressed
  in　the　form　of　universal　thoughts；　respecting　which　it　is　of　infinite　importance　that　they　should　be
  assumptions　present　in　the　human　mind：　that　man　has　in　his　heart　the　feeling　of　right；　of　love　to　his
  fellow…creatures：　that　religion　and　faith　are　not　matters　of　compulsion；　that　merit；　talent；　virtue　are
  the　true　nobility；　&c。　An　important　question；　especially　among　the　Germans；　was　what　is　the　end
  and　character　of　man；　by　which　was　meant　the　nature　of　his　mind　and　spirit；　and　certainly；　as　far　as
  the　spiritual　is　concerned；　it　is　to　this　point　that　we　must　return。　But　in　order　to　find　the　nature　of
  spirit；　to　discover　what　this　determination　is；　a　return　was　made　to　perception；　observation；
  experience；　to　the　existence　of　certain　impulses。　These　are　certainly　determinations　in　our