similarly　for　its　object　to　bring　man　back　to　his　so…called　natural　promptings；　its　essence　has　the
  form　of　a　natural　impulse；　and　this　natural　impulse　is　termed　self…love；　selfishness；　or　benevolence。
  It　is　required　that　man　should　live　in　conformity　with　nature；　but　this　nature　does　not　reach　further
  than　general　expressions　and　descriptions；　such　as　the　state　of　nature　we　find　depicted　by
  Rousseau。　What　is　called　the　metaphysic　of　ordinary　conceptions　is　the　empiricism　of　Locke；
  which　seeks　to　show　their　origin；　to　be　in　consciousness；　in　as　far　as　it　is　individual　consciousness；
  which；　when　born　into　the　world；　emerges　out　of　unconsciousness　in　order　to　acquire　knowledge
  as　sensuous　consciousness。　This　external　origin　they　confound　with　the　Becoming　and　Notion　of
  the　matter　in　point。　If　one　were　to　ask　vaguely　what　is　the　origin　and　genesis　of　water；　and　the
  answer　were　to　be　given　that　it　comes　from　the　mountains　or　from　rain；　this　would　be　a　reply　in　the
  spirit　of　the　above　philosophy。　In　short；　it　is　only　the　negative　aspect　that　is　interesting；　and　as　for
  this　positive　French　philosophy；　it　is　out　of　the　question。　But　even　the　negative　side　of　it　belongs
  properly　to　culture　mainly；　with　which　we　have　here　nothing　to　do；　and　the　Aufkl？rung　likewise
  belongs　to　the　same。　In　the　French　philosophic　writings；　which　in　this　respect　are　of　importance；
  what　is　worthy　of　admiration　is　the　astonishing　energy　and　force　of　the　Notion　as　directed　against
  existence；　against　faith；　against　all　the　power　of　authority　that　had　held　sway　for　thousands　of
  years。　On　the　one　hand　we　cannot　help　remarking　the　feeling　of　utter　rebellion　against　the　whole
  state　of　affairs　at　present　prevailing；　a　state　which　is　alien　to　self…consciousness；　which　would　fain
  dispense　with　it；　and　in　which　self…consciousness　does　not　find　itself；　there　is　a　certainty　of　the　truth
  of　reason；　which　challenges　the　whole　intellectual　world　as　it　stands　aloof；　and　is　confident　of
  destroying　it。　French　atheism；　materialism；　or　naturalism　has　overcome　all　prejudices；　and　has　been
  victorious　over　the　senseless　hypotheses　and　assumptions　of　the　positive　element　in　religion；　which
  is　associated　with　habits；　manners；　opinions；　determinations　as　to　law　and　morality　and　civil
  institutions。　With　the　healthy　human　understanding　and　earnestness　of　spirit；　and　not　with　frivolous
  declamations；　it　has　rebelled　against　the　condition　of　the　world　as　legally　established；　against　the
  constitution　of　the　state；　the　administration　of　justice；　the　mode　of　government；　political　authority；
  and　likewise　against　art。
  Contrasting　with　this　barren　content　there　is　the　other　and　fertile　side。　The　positive　is　in　its　turn
  constituted　by　so…called　immediately　enlightening　truths　of　the　healthy　human　understanding；　which
  contains　nothing　except　this　truth　and　the　claim　to　find　itself；　and　beyond　this　form　does　not　pass。
  But　in　so　doing　there　arises　the　endeavour　to　grasp　the　absolute　as　something　present；　and　at　the
  same　time　as　an　object　of　thought　and　as　absolute　unity：　an　endeavour　which；　as　it　implies　denial　of
  the　conception　of　design　both　in　the　natural　and　in　the　spiritual　sphere　—　the　former　involving　the
  idea　of　life；　and　the　latter　that　of　spirit　and　freedom　—　only　reaches　to　the　abstraction　of　a　nature
  undetermined　in　itself；　to　sensation；　mechanism；　self…seeking；　and　utility。　It　is　this　then　that　we　shall
  have　to　make　evident　in　the　positive　side　of　French　philosophy。　In　their　political　constitutions　the
  French　have；　it　is　true；　started　from　abstractions；　but　they　have　done　so　as　from　universal　thoughts；
  which　are　the　negative　of　reality；　the　English；　on　the　other　hand；　proceed　from　concrete　reality；
  from　the　unwieldy　structure　of　their　constitution；　just　as　their　writers　even　have　not　attained　to
  universal　principles。　What　Luther　began　in　the　heart　only　and　in　the　feelings　—　the　freedom　of　spirit
  which；　unconscious　of　its　simple　root；　does　not　comprehend　itself；　and　yet　is　the　very　universal
  itself；　for　which　all　content　disappears　in　the　thought；　that　fills　itself　with　itself　—　these　universal
  determinations　and　thoughts　the　French　asserted　and　steadfastly　adhered　to：　they　are　universal
  principles；　in　the　form　of　the　conviction　of　the　individual　in　himself。　Freedom　becomes　the
  condition　of　the　world；　connects　itself　with　the　world's　history　and　forms　epochs　in　the　same；　it　is
  the　concrete　freedom　of　the　spirit；　a　concrete　universality；　fundamental　principles　as　regards　the
  concrete　now　take　the　place　of　the　abstract　metaphysic　of　Descartes。　Among　the　Germans　we
  find　mere　chatter；　they　would　have　liked　to　offer　explanations　also；　but　all　they　have　to　give　is　in
  the　form　of　miserable　phenomena　and　individualism。　The　French；　from　their　starting…point　of　the
  thought　of　universality；　and　the　German　liberty　of　conscience　starting　from　the　conscience　which
  teaches　us　to　“Prove　all　things；”　to　“hold　fast　that　which　is　good；”　have；　however；　joined　hands
  with　one　another；　or　they　follow　the　same　path。　Only　the　French；　as　though　they　were　without
  conscience；　have　made　short　work　of　everything；　and　have　systematically　adhered　to　a　definite
  thought　—　the　physiocratic　system；　while　the　Germans　wish　to　leave　themselves　a　free　retreat；　and
  examine　from　the　standpoint　of　conscience　whether　a　certain　course　is　permissible。　The　French
  warred　against　the　speculative　Notion　with　the　spirit；　the　Germans　did　so　with　the　understanding。
  We　find　in　the　French　a　deep　all…embracing　philosophic　need；　different　from　anything　in　the　English
  and　Scotch　and　even　in　the　Germans；　and　full　of　vitality：　it　is　a　universal　concrete　view　of　all　that
  exists；　with　entire　independence　both　of　all　authority　and　of　all　abstract　metaphysics。　The　method
  employed　is　that　of　development　from　perception；　from　the　heart；　it　is　a　comprehensive　view　of　the
  entire　matter；　which　keeps　the　whole　ever　in　sight；　and　seeks　to　uphold　and　attain　to　it。
  This　healthy　human　understanding；　this　sound　reason；　with　its　content　taken　from　the　human　breast；
  from　natural　feeling；　has　directed　itself　against　the　religious　side　of　things　in　various　moments：　on
  the　one　hand　and　first　of　all；　as　French　philosophy；　it　did　so　against　the　Catholic　religion；　the　fetters
  of　superstition　and　of　the　hierarchy；　on　the　other　hand；　in　less　pronounced　form；　as　the　German
  “illumination；”　against　the　Protestant　religion；　in　as　far　as　it　has　a　content　which　it　has　derived
  from　revelation；　from　ecclesiastical　authority　in　general。　On　the　one　hand　the　form　of　authority　in
  general　was　challenged；　and　on　the　other　hand　its　matter。　The　content　can　be　easily　enough
  disposed　of　by　this　form　of　thought；　which　is　not　what　we　understand　by　reason；　but　which　must
  be　termed　understanding；　it　is　easy　for　the　understanding　to　show　objections　to　the　ultimate
  principles　of　what　can　be　comprehended　only　by　means　of　speculation。　The　understanding　has
  thus　tried　the　content　of　religion　by　its　standard；　and　has　condemned　it；　the　understanding
  proceeds　in　the　same　way　against　a　concrete　philosophy。　What　of　religion　has　in　many　theologies
  been　very　commonly　left　remaining　is　what　is　termed　theism；　faith　in　general；　this　is　the　same
  content　which　is　found　also　in　Mohammedanism。　But　along　with　this　attack　upon　religion　on　the
  part　of　the　reasoning　understanding　there　has　been　also　a　movement　towards　materialism；　atheism
  and　naturalism。　It　is　true　that　we　should　not　make　the　charge　of　atheism　lightly；　for　it　is　a　very
  common　occurrence　that　an　individual　whose　ideas　about　God　differ　from　those　of　other　people　is
  charged　with　lack　of　religion；　or　even　with　atheism。　But　here　it　really　is　the　case　that　this
  philosophy　has　developed　into　atheism；　and　has　defined　matter；　nature；　&c。；　as　that　which　is　to　be
  taken　as　the　ultimate；　the　active；　and　the　efficient。　Some　Frenchmen；　Rousseau　for　instance；　are
  not；　however；　to　be　included　with　the　rest；　one　of　this　author's　works；　“The　Confession　of　Faith　of
  a　Vicar；”　（1）　contains　the　very　same　theism　which　is　found　in　German　theologians。　Thus　French
  metaphysics　finds　a　parallel　not　only　in　Spinoza　（supra；　p。　382）　but　also　in　the　German
  metaphysics　of　Wolff。　Other　Frenchmen　have　confessedly　gone　over　to　naturalism；　among　them　is
  specially　to　be　mentioned　Mirabaud；　to　whom　the　Système　de　la　Nature　is　attributed。
  In　what　has　been　termed　French　philosophy；　represented　by　Voltaire；　Montesquieu；　Rousseau；
  d'Alembert；　Diderot；　and　in　what　subsequently　appeared　in　Germany　as　the　Aufkl？rung；　and　has
  been　also　stigmatized　as　atheism；　we　may　now　distinguish　three　aspects；　first；　the　negative　side；　to
  which　most　exception　has　been　taken；　secondly；　the　positive　side；　thirdly；　the　philosophical；
  metaphysical　side。
  1。　THE　NEGATIVE　ASPECT。
  Justice　must　be　done　even　to　this　negative　side；　as　to　everything　else；　what　is　substantial　in　it　is　the
  attack　of　the　reasoning　instinct　against　a　condition　of　degeneracy；　I　may　even　say　of　utter　and
  universal　falsehood；　for　instance；　against　the　positive　side　of　a　religion　that　has　become　wooden
  and　lifeless。　What　we　call　religion　is　firm　faith；　conviction　that　there　is　a　God；　if　this　is　faith　in　the
  doctrines　of